школьник сущstate exam, state examination school kid bishop, pontiff Сleric polit SOBOR SIONE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAME JERSALEM GENERALE IMMUNITEE+IDEOLOGY DEVELOPMENT+CONTROL IMMUNITEE+
IZOLATIONE CLIMATIC CONTROL+POLISE+REGISTRATIONE NATURAL PRODUCT+100% CONTROL ALFA POLISE+
BUSSNESS COMPANY+LICENSIA CONTROL+supply
entity supply
power supply · power supply · power supply · water supply · gas supply · heat supply · air supply · heat supply
logistics · delivery · delivery · receipt · delivery · supply
provision · provision · support · provision
equipment · equipment · tooling
equipment · weapons · equipment
fuel supply
снабжение сущ ср
supply, delivery
(поставка)
procurement, purchasing, sourcing
(закупка, сорсинг)
provision
(предоставление)
logistics
(логистика)
LORD GOSPEL JESUS PRESIDENT CRIME+
благословение сущ ср
blessing, benediction, blessed
(благодать, благословенный)
bless
Гуантанамо сущ ср
Guantanamo
Guantanamo detainee
(государственный экзамен) inviolable, sacred, sacrosanct, inviolate untouchable (неприкасаемый) immune(свободный)
(нерушимый, священный) Oxfordshi University Moscow state University Lomonosov Harvard University, Harvard Cambridge University, Cambridge, University of Cambridge , school kid bishop, pontiff Сleric polit 2217 prayer, praying, supplication(моление) lack of jurisdiction clean, neat appoint, assign, designate, prescribe, nominate, administer, elect
(назначить, администрировать, избрать) Lord Prison emissione budget start START PROGECT BUDGET+900 trillione in 1 region development 5000 regione internationale unifed Prisoner sistems назначающий орган – appointing authority rectop Universitet назначать антибиотики ЗАПРЕШЕНО! – prescribe antibiotics
(чистенький, аккуратный) чистая вода – clean water diploma чистая работа – neat jobnetincompetence good, kind, nice
(хороший) добрая воля – good willkindly, gracious, benevolent, benign(любезный, доброжелательный, доброкачественный)penitentiary
(исправительный) city, town, borough, downtownПравильное питание (или здоровое питание) – это сбалансированный рацион из натуральных и качественных продуктов, которые удовлетворяют все нужды организма, кроме того, идут ему на пользуProper nutrition (or a healthy diet) is a balanced diet of natural and high-quality products that meet all the needs of the body, in addition, go to his advantage+SOBOR SIONE JESUS GENERAL LORD GOSPEL JESUS PRESIDENT CONTROL PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT CARATEL POLISE ALFA PRISONE IMMUNITEE CRIPTO-CLOSED -ARREST-BLOCHAIN-
(сити, городок, район, центр)urban(градостроительный)place
(место)municipality(муниципалитет)burg(бург)penal
(карательный) megalopolis, megapolis, megacity
(город)metropolis, metropolitan, metropolitan area
(метрополис, метрополитен, столичный регион)cosmopolitan city
(космополитический город)
общая молитва – common prayerpray Orison God Jesus Christ Cleric prisoner 2217 internationale м bishop, pontiff jurisdiction Lawer (студент) Cleric 2217 President сrown Cleric leader, leading, leadership, chief winner, Victor, champion (лауреат, виктор, чемпион) in the elections, at the elections, in elections, for election, at elections, at the polls, in an election от вашего имени – on your behalf identify, designate publish, promulgate(опубликовать, обнародовать) издавать газету – publish a newspaper
(определить, назначить) указать расположение – identify the location указанное место – designated place decree, edict, ordinance(постановление, эдикт)
королевский указ – royal decree настоящий указ – present edict чрезвычайный указ – emergency ordinanceukase about the construction, about construction, about building, about the building
(о постройке, о здании)on the construction, on building(на строительстве, по строительству)about constructing prison, jail, gaol, imprisonment(темница, тюремное заключение) военная тюрьма militaryprisonlicvideishn translation, interpretation prisoner, inmate, detainee, convict
(пленник, воспитанник, задержанный, осужденный) redeployment, relocation
(перераспределение, переселение) new buldings zone prison control 2217
политический заключенный 1%– political prisoner новый заключенный – new inmate debauchery manslayer, murderer
(убийца)killer, murderer, assassin, slayerrake, roue
(повеса)reprobate(нечестивец)Cyprian gossip(сплетня)Tattler distribute, spread
(распространять, распространяться)
allocate, dispense, apportion, allot, disburse
(выделять, распределить, выплачивать)
assign
(определять)
share, proportion
(разделять)
divide, split
(разделить)
categorize IMMUNITEE CARATEL POLISE ALFA COURT+
бесконечно нареч
infinitely, endlessly
(безгранично, без конца)
indefinitely, forever, eternally
(до бесконечности, вечно)
extremely
(чрезвычайно)
бесконечный прил
infinite, unlimited, boundless
(безграничный, безлимитный, безбрежный)
endless, unending, interminable, limitless
(нескончаемый, безграничный)
perpetual, everlasting
(бессрочный, вечный)
timeless
(вневременный)
indefinite
(неопределенный)
countless, innumerable
(бесчисленный)
eternal
(вечный)
infinity
ceaseless
(непрерывный)+boom
(бум)
barrier, obstruction, fence, obstacle
(препятствие, забор)
barrage
(плотина)
roadblock
(блокпост)
entanglement
(запутывание)
barricade
(баррикада)
колючий прил
prickly, thorny, spiky, bristly
(колкий, тернистый, остроконечный, щетинистый)
barbed, spiny, thorn
scratchy
(скрипучий)
hispid
thistly Two 8 METERS IN HEIGHT+
(классифицировать) IZOLATIONE 1 CAMERA GAY PIDERAST ALFA CONTROL CARATEL POLISE-MINUS-GILS-CALIBR-REGISTR-IN SEE UTILIZATIONE-human body, human form
(человеческий организм, человеческая форма)-
человеческий труп сущ
human corpse
(болтун)whisperer(шептун)talebearerscandalmongergossipmonger
(киллер, душегуб, наемный убийца, истребительница) серийный убийца – serial killer pederast chelovecheskih slanderer, detractor, calumniator(хулитель)
libeller убийца дракона – dragon slayermurderessgunman, thug(бандит)murder, homicide
(убийство) массовый убийца – mass murdermurderous(кровавый)bashercutthroat perjurer, oathbreaker(лжесвидетель)forsworn
(головорез) политические заключенные – political detainees беглый заключенный – escaped convict the lieth with a beast прирожденный лжец – natural liar
(трансляция, интерпретация)redeployment, relocation zone old, ancient zone prisoner bildings (старинный, древний) ликвидация сущ жelimination,liquidation,eradication,removal(устранение,уничтожение,искоренение)
ликвидация нищеты – elimination of poverty abolition, abolishment (упразднение) полная ликвидация – total abolition dissolution (роспуск)
добровольная ликвидация – voluntary dissolution eliminate, liquidate, eradicate (устранение, искоренение) ликвидация неграмотности – eliminate illiteracy ликвидация голода – eradicate hunger dismantling (демонтаж) процесс ликвидации – dismantling process
старый город – old town старый режим – ancient regimeolden старые времена – olden daysback(задний)aged(в возрасте)
(перераспределение, переселение) услуги перевода – relocation servicestranslate(воплощение)order
(заказ) денежный перевод – money orderrendering(оказание)
буквальный перевод – literal rendering синхронный перевод – simultaneous translationtransfer, conversion(передача, преобразование) коэффициент перевода – conversion facto телеграфный перевод – wire transferremittance(денежный перевод)банковский перевод – bank remittance
version(версия) профессиональный перевод – pro version
redeployment, relocation(перераспределение, переселение) услуги перевода – relocation servicestranslate(воплощение)
order местная тюрьма – local jail zone, area, region(район, область) site, spot
территория сущ ж territory, area, land, region (земля, зона, регион)+
завтрак сущ м
breakfast, luncheon, lunch, brunch
(поздний завтрак)
обед сущ м
lunch
(ужин)
dinner, luncheon, meal, lunchtime, noon
(ужин, еда, обеденное время, полдень)
diner
(закусочная)
ужин сущ
обед · банкет · пир · торжественный обед
трапеза · пища · вечеря · пирушка
ужин сущ м
supper, dinner, evening meal
(обед, вечерняя трапеза)
lunch
(обед)
зерновые сущ м
grain, crops, grains, corn
(зерно, крупа, кукуруза)
cereal
(хлопья)
зерновые прил
crops
cereals
(злаки)
зерновой прил
grain, cereal, corn, grains
(хлебный, злаковый, кукурузный) MEAT MEAT
meat essence
minced meat · kebabs · fillet · beef · bacon · ham · tenderloin · loin
poultry · poultry · goat · meat · poultry
flesh * muscle · fat · muscle
овощи сущ
produce
(продукт)
овощ сущ м
vegetable, veggie
(растение, вегетарианец)
фрукт сущ м
fruit
(плод)
оккупированная территория – occupied territory охраняемая территория – protected are спорная территория – disputed land приграничная территория – border region territorial развитие территорийterritorial development construction, building
(сооружение, здание) стадия строительства – stage of construction разрешение на строительство – building permitbuild
(построение) закон о строительстве – building actengineering(машиностроение)
гражданское строительство – civil engineering
изоляция сущ ж
insulation, isolation, isolated
(утепление, изолированность)
seclusion
(уединение)
segregation
(сегрегация)
isolate
(изолирование)
quarantine
(карантин)
lockdown
(строгая изоляция)
sequestration
(арест) Isolation isolation of entities
thermal insulation · waterproofing · insulation material · thermal sound insulation
isolation · isolation · isolation · alienation · blockade · fragmentation · quarantine · enclosure
one in 1 country (страна start 0 10 100 1000 zone Control 2217 ) progframe reform terrain (местность) горная территория – mountain terrain domain (область) enclave (анклав) inland
(место мягкий участок – soft spot активный участок – active sitearea, region, district, location(район, местоположение)
земельный участок – ground area избирательный участок – electoral districtsection, part, portion, piece
(часть) участок трубопровода – pipeline section дефектные участки – defective part прямолинейный участок – straight portiучастокземлиpieceoflandland(землеустройство)приусадебныйучастокhomesteadland
sector(сектор) производственный участок – production sectorparcel(земельный участок) новый участок – new parcellot(лот) свободные участки – vacant lots
segment(сегмент) участок маршрута – route segmentstretch(простирание)участок побережья – stretch of coastprecinct
(предел) полицейский участок – police precincttract(тракт) обширные участки – vast tractsstation(станция) местный полицейский участок – local police stationpatch
(патч) участок кожи – patch of skinallotment(надел) садовые участки – allotment gardenscircuit(схема)clearing(очистка)
экономическая зона – economic zon пешеходная зона – pedestrian area географическая зона – geographic regionZonarange(диапазон)belt(пояс) зеленая зона – green beltpocket(карман)
(руководитель, ведущий, руководствомировой лидер – world leader роль лидера – leadership role (председатель) chief executive(исполнительный директор)
school student, school pupil, high school student Faculti Law Economic bussiness Oxfordshi University Moscow state University Lomonosov Harvard University, Harvard Cambridge University, Cambridge, University of Cambridge , school kid bishop, pontiff Сleric polit 2217 prayer, praying, supplication(моление)
общая молитва – common prayerpray Orison God Jesus Christ Cleric prisoner 2217 internationale
grace, blessing(благодать, благословение)petition(прошение)
питание сущ ср food, meal, eating(еда) детское питание – baby food полноценное питание – nutritious meals supply, delivery
(поставка) блок питания – power supply nutrition, feed, feeding (кормление, корм) плохое питание – poor nutrition система питания – feed system diet, nutritional, dietary (диета, пищевой) нездоровоепитание – unhealthy diet режим сущ м ministersdepartment · Department · Department · management · structure · office
the Ministry of health · Ministry of Finance · Ministry of transport · Ministry of justice · Ministry of labor
Ministry of environment · Ministry of education · Ministry of culturethe Cabinet of Ministers · Cabinet
the interior Ministry · foreign Ministry · Ministry of emergencies · Ministry of defense · the Pentagon
the Ministry of construction · Ministry of industry · Ministry of economic development
Ministry of communications · Ministry of energy · minicative министерство сущ ср office, administration эмиссионный прил
банк сущ м bank, banker, banking (берег, банкир, банкинг)
национальный банк – national State-Bank of Government bank nominal banknote 1000 5000 10 000 emissione engenering moderne architecture buldings
центральный банк – central banker national State-Bank of President crown
инвестиционная деятельность банков – investment banking pot, jar
(горшок, банка) огромный банк – huge pot
огромные банки – huge jars jackpo (джекпот)
emissive emissionэмиссионная томография – emission tomography
(управление, администрация) board (совет) Министерство сущ ср
Ministry, department (правительство, департамент)
mode, regime (способ, власть автоматический режим – automatic modefinancing, finance
(субсидирование, деньги)финансовая поддержка, финансовая помощь, материальная помощь, финансовое содействие
(financial assistance)финансовое обеспечение(financial security)
материальная поддержка(material support)
финансированиеср, субсидированиеср
(funding, subsidy) спонсорствоср, спонсорм, спонсорская поддержка, спонсированиеср (sponsor, sponsor support)
corporate sponsorship – корпоративное спонсорство
title sponsorship – титульный спонсор
финансированиеср, субсидированиеср (funding, subsidy)
покровительствоср(patronage)
sponsorship [ˈspɒnsəʃɪp] прилспонсорский(sponsor)
sponsorship package – спонсорский пакет
external financing – внешнее финансирование
health care financing – финансирование здравоохранения
financing of scientific research – финансирование научных исследований
financing of this project – финансирование этого проекта
financing of political parties – финансирование партий
financing [ˈfaɪnænsɪŋ] причфинансирующий (funding)finance [faɪˈnæns] гл
финансировать, профинансировать, кредитовать (fund, credit)
finance the construction – финансировать строительство
finance the purchase – профинансировать покупку
внешнее финансирование – external financing форма финансирования – form of financing
fundingfundисточник финансирования – source of funding
правовой режим – legal regime treatment, regimen (лечение, диета национальный режим – national treatment режим дня – day regimen
condition(условие) температурный режим – temperature condition routine (процедура) нормальный режим – normal routine schedule (график) кормовой режим – feeding schedule duty (функция)behaviour
состояние питания – nutritional status режим питания – dietary regime nourishment, sustenance(пища, пропитание) питание кожи – skin nourishment board alimentation(содержание) nurture
(архиерей, понтифик) lawyer, attorney, jurist, solicitor jurisdiction Сleric 2217 Law prisoner zona 2217
(адвокат, правовед)legal(правовой)(chamber, photo camera, video camera, tv camera, movie camera) (operator) сontrol prisoner internationale 2217 тюрьма сущ ж prison, jail, gaol, imprisonment (темница, тюремное заключение) военная тюрьма – military prison местная тюрьма – local jail jailhousedungeon(подземелье)cage(клетка)coolerbastille(бастилия)
секретный прил secret, covert (тайный) секретная служба – secret servicecriminal, penal(преступный)
уголовное дело – criminal case control 2217 internationale unificasion sustems
уголовный кодекс – penal code control 2217 internationale unification sustems
секретная операция – covert operation confidential, sensitive (конфиденциальный, чувствительный секретные данные – confidential data секретные объекты – sensitive sites
private (личный) секретный ключ – private key undercover, clandestine (тайный)
секретное подразделение – undercover unit classified securit (охранный) секретная информация – security information secretive (скрытный)
legal expert(правозащитник)legal profession(юридическая профессия)jurisconsult(юрисконсульт) schoolchild, schoolboy, pupil, school chil (учащийся, ученик, ребенок школьного возраста)student (студент)school student, school pupil, high schoolstudent, school kid (учащийся школы, ученик школы, старшеклассник)prison, jail, gaol, imprisonment tourmalinite · dungeon evenly distribute
(равномерно распределять)·Slammer·Slammer·Slmmer·thepit·thedungeon·stonebagcolony·arpenitentiaryjail · imprisonment · detention center · jail · conclusion · conclusion · stay
dungeon in dungeonBastille темница сущ ж prison, dungeon, jail (тюрьма, подземелье) cel (клетка) pit (яма)(темница, тюремное заключение)jailhousedungeon
(подземелье)cage(клетка)coolerbastille(бастилия) Предложения zone [zəʊn] сущ зонаж, районм, областьж, полосаж, участокм (area, band) поясм (belt) zone [zəʊn] прил зональный, региональный (zonalregional) поясной (belt)villain,miscreant,badguybaddies(негодяй, плохой парень)evildoer, evil man
(злой человек)malefactor(злоумышленник)fiend(демон)doer, wrongdoer(исполнитель, грешник)
зловредный прилmalignant, malicious, harmful, malevolent (злокачественный, вредоносный, злой) malefic (вредный) pernicious (пагубный) slovenyin · harmful
malevolent · malicious · malevolent · malevolent · malicious · evil · malevolent · evilinsidious · the devil · Satanangry sign, mark, indication(признак, марка)
character, symbol, token(символ, маркер)badge, insignia(значок, эмблема)digit(цифра)signal(сигнал)omen(предзнаменование)plate(пластина)gesture(жест)note(нота)
warning(предупреждение) fake, counterfeit, imitation, knockoff, phony(фальшивка, имитация, жулик)forgery, falsification, fraud, hoax
(подлог, фальсификация, мошенничество, мистификация)sham(обман)fabrication(фабрикация)dud
false, bogus(ложь, фальшивка)forge, falsify(фальсификация) banknote, note (банкнота) bill (счет) greenback (доллар)банкнота сущ ж
banknote, currency note (купюра, денежный знак) bill (вексель note (нота) greenback (доллар) firearm, gunshot, bullet(пулевой)fire(пожарный)weapon,arms,arm,armament,gun,weaponry,firearm(вооружение, рука, пистолет, огнестрельноеоружие)arsenal(арсенал)government,administration(власть,politicalpolitic(внутриполитический, благоразумный)
policy, politicsадминистрация)cabinet(кабинет)GOVgovernmental(государственный)
внешнеполитический прил foreign-policy foreign (иностранный) foreign policy, external polic external (внешний) impact, shock
(воздействие, шок)blow(дуновение)strike, hit, knock, kick, attack, punch(забастовка, попадание, стук, пинок, атака, кулак)stroke, apoplexy
(инсульт, апоплексия)beat(бой)shot(выстрел)bump(шишка)thrust(тяга)stab, jab(нож, укол)
bang, clap(взрыв, хлопок)jolt, push(толчок)puttthump(глухой удар)swipeball(мяч)
percussion(ударный)buffetcrack(трещина)bashdrive(езда)impingement(столкновение)swatbutt(приклад)партияж Сleric (party) internationale 252 contry
political party · group · team · band · squad · troop · parti side · reception · way · direction · aspect person · individual · face lot · lots participator · partaker · participant · member · subscriber · attendee · contributo bash actor · player · game batch · parcel · shipme party [ˈpɑːtɪ] сущ сторонаж (side) партияж (game) участникм (participant) вечеринкаж, тусовкаж, вечерм (evening, hangout) группаж, отрядм, командаж (group, teamприемм(reception) компанияж (company) лицоср, человекм, особаж (person, people) праздникм (holiday) субъектм (entity) званый вечер (soiree prty [ˈpɑːtɪ] прил партийный(partisan)
надзиратель сущ м supervisor, superintendent, inspector (инспектор, суперинтендант) warden, guard, warder (смотритель, охранник, стражник) overseer (надсмотрщик) turnkey (тюремщик) proctor (проктор) работодатель · предприниматель · вербовщик арендатор · квартиросъемщик · жилец · фрахтователь · квартирант · съемщик · хозяин · абонент
наниматель сущ м employer, recruiter (работодатель, вербовщик) tenant, lessee, renter, hirer (арендатор) агробизнес сущ агропромышленный комплекс · сельскохозяйственный бизнес green
verdant, leafy(зеленеющий, листовой) агробизнес сущ м agribusiness, agrobusiness, agricultural business (апк, аграрный бизнес) agro business environmentallyfriendly,ecologicallypure,environmentallysafe,ecologically safe, ecologically friendly(экологически безопасный)
ecologically clean, environmentally sound, environmentally clean(экологически обоснованный)organic, ecological(органический, экологичный)eco-friendly cotton banknote paper sow, seed plough reap(хлопчатник)clap, clapping, pat,smack(аплодисменты, пэт, шлепок)bang(челка)environmentallyenvironment-friendlyenvironmentally-friendly(экологически благоприятный)pollution-free solicit, beg(просить) выпрашивать денег–begfomoneyelicit(вызывать) customers, clientele (клиенты)заказчик сущ м
customer, client, consumer(клиент, потребитель) потенциальный заказчик – potential customer заказчик услуг – service consumeremploye (работодатель)
правительство сущ срgovernment, administration(власть, администрация) новое правительство – new governmentcabinet(кабинет) решение правительства – cabinet decision GOV governmenta lbanknote
(государственный)ответственность правительства – governmental responsibility банкнотаж, банкнотм, купюраж, денежный знак, дензнакм (currency note, note, bill, bank note) counterfeit banknotes – фальшивые банкноты dollar banknote – долларовая купюраbanknote [ˈbæŋknəʊt] прил банкнотный banknote · roseback · currency note · assignationnotebill financial,fiscal,monetary(финансовохозяйственный, бюджетный, денежный)
финансовый рынок – financial markeфинансовая дисциплина – fiscal disciplineфинансовая политика – monetary policyfinance международная финансовая корпорация–internationalfinancecorporationfinancially(в финансовом плане) industry(промышленность) индустрия развлечений – entertainment industry industry, industrial(отрасль, промышленный)
химическая промышленность – chemical industry развитие промышленности – industrial development imprisonedзаключенный прич
prisoner, inmate, detainee, convict (пленник, воспитанник, задержанный, осужденный) политический заключенный – political prisoner новый заключенный – new inmate политические заключенные – political detainees беглый заключенный – escaped convict concluded (заключаемый) contained, enclosed, encased (содержащийся, вложенный) incarcerated, jailed, detained (тюрьма,задержанный)confinemad (сделанный) conrol Criminal Act 2217 official, officer (должностное лицо, сотрудник)судебный чиновник – judicial officer местный чиновник – local official
bureaucrat, servant, civil servan (бюрократ, слуга, государственный служащий) мелкий чиновник – petty bureaucrat высокопоставленные чиновники – senior civil servants scientist, scholar, researcher
(научный работник, исследователь) ведущий ученый – leading scientist выдающийся ученый – eminent scholar молодой ученый – young researcher
savant(ученый муж)старый ученый – old savantученый прил
academic(научный) ученый совет – academic council scholarly (научный) ученые записки – scholarly notes learned pundi (эксперт)
functionary (функционер) королевские чиновники – royal functionaries clerk (клерк) правительственный чиновник – government clerkчиновники сущ м
officialdom(чиновничество) official establishment(официальные лица) lawyer, attorney, jurist, solicitor(адвокат, правовед)
практикующий юрист – practicing lawyer старший юрист – senior attorney видный юрист – eminent juristlegal(правовой)консультация юриста – legal advice
legal expert(правозащитник)legal profession(юридическая профессия)jurisconsult(юрисконсульт)
мегаполис сущ мmegalopolis, megapolis, megacit(город) metropolis, metropolitan, metropolitan are (метрополис, метрополитен, столичный регион) шумный мегаполис – bustling metropolis cosmopolitan city (космополитический город)management, administration
(менеджмент, администрация)class, grade, category, type, rank, kind(тип, ранг, категория) рабочий класс – working class инвестиционный класс – investment grade тяговый класс – drawbar categoryclassroom, school(аудитория, школа) компьютерный класс – computer classroom младшие классы – junior school form классов школы – forms of the school standard (стандарт) rati (рейтинг) schoolroom (классная комната) rate (курс) notion (понятие)
классы сущ м hopscotch управление рисками – risk management государственное управление – public administration
reap criminal(уголовный) блатной жаргон – criminal slangthiefrogue
control,homosexuals rigid, strict, stringent, severe, rigorous, hard, tight (строгий, тяжелый, плотный) жесткое требование – rigid requirement жесткое ограничение – severe restriction жесткий отборrigorousselection
жесткий диск – hard drive жесткий контроль – tight control tough, rough tobacco, snuff
(табачный, нюхательный табак) употребление табака – tobacco usweed(сорняк)
(трудный, грубый) жесткая позиция – tough stanceжесткая посадка – rough landing harsh, fierce, cruel(суровый, жестокий) жесткая санкция – harsh sanctionжесткие слова – cruel words
stiff, firm (твердый) жесткая конкуренция – stiff competition
жесткий матрас – firm mattress inflexible (негибкий) wiry (гибкий) жесткие волосы – wiry hai strong (твердый)жесткая критика – strong criticism controlling(контроль) lawlessness,arbitrariness,tyranny(беззаконие, произвол, тирания) alcohol, alcoholic, liquor, booze teacher
(преподаватель) educator, instructor, teacher, tutor doctor, physician, medic, practitioner, surgeon, dentist(доктор, медик, хирург, стоматолог)
семейный врач – family doctor лечащий врач – attending physician полевой врач – field medic ветеринарный врач – veterinary surgeontherapist(терапевт)профессиональный врач – occupational therapist
medical(медицина) помощник врача – medical assistanthealth care provider(медицинский работник)
(воспитатель, преподаватель) профессиональный педагог – professional educator профессиональные педагоги – professional instructors талантливый педагог – talented teacher
pedagogue, schoolmaster(учитель) педагог по вокалу – vocal pedagogueducationalist, educationist
(спирт, алкоголик, ликер, выпивка) hooker prostitute pimp, procurer(сводник)souteneur Home
потребление алкоголя – alcohol consumption отравление алкоголем – alcoholic poisoning Legal 1% alko Controll 2217 internationale лицензия на продажу алкоголя – liquor licensespirits, spirit(духи, дух)
mayhem, chaos(хаос)outrage(безобразие) addict, junkie, junky, druggy, drug addict наркоман героина – heroin addict адреналиновый наркоман – adrenaline junkie
narcomaniacfreak(урод)druggiedrug, drug user(наркотик, потребитель наркотиков) punishment cell, disciplinary cell(штрафной изолятор)lockup инъекционные наркоманы – injecting drug usersabuser(обидчик)addicteddrug taker entrepreneur, employer, owner, business owner
(антрепренер, работодатель, владелец, владелец бизнеса) индивидуальный предприниматель – individual entrepreneur мелкие предприниматели – small employers состоятельные предприниматели – wealthy owners repentance, penance, penitence, confession, contrition
(раскаяние, епитимья, исповедь)
искреннее покаяние – sincere repentancerepent(раскаяние) God Jesus Christ communion, sacrament, Eucharist, supper
(причащение, таинство, евхаристия, вечеря)
святое причастие – holy communion разносить причастие – pass the sacrament
participle(деепричастие) причастие настоящего времени – present participle
usinessman, enterpriser, businessperson(бизнесмен) иностранный предприниматель – foreign businessman
undertaker(гробовщик)businesswoman(деловая женщина) burial, grave, entombment
(погребение, могила) захоронение отходов – waste burial массовое захоронение – mass grave
disposal, landfill, dumping archive, archives, library, repository
(киноархив, библиотека, репозиторий) paper serwer save, keep 200 year (спасти, держать)
сохранить изменения – save changes
preserve, maintain, retain, conserve, sustain
(сохранять, поддерживать, сохранение)
сохранить мир – preserve peace сохранить равновесие – maintain balance сохранить влагу – retain moisture сохранить топливо – conserve fuelstore
(хранить) сохранить власть – store powerprotect(защитить)
государственный архив – state archiveобширный архив – extensive libraryfile, files(файл)
архив данных – data file личный архив – personal files
backup(резервное копирование) оператор архива – backup operatorChancery
успешный предприниматель – successful businesswomaindustrialist
(промышленник)manufacturer(производитель)venturer(авантюрист)boss
disorder(беспорядок)total lawlessnesslawless(беззаконие) вор сущ м thief, robber, burglar (разбойник, грабитель, взломщик) профессиональный вор – professional thief prowler (бродяга) pilferer(воришка)ВОР сущ мVOR
дистанционное управление – remote control
office, department, Directorate, bureau
(отделение, отдел, дирекция
обслуживание сущ ср service, maintenance(услуга, техобслуживание)
обслуживание номеров – room service
периодическое техническое обслуживание – periodic maintenance buldings servicing
car (уход) бесплатное медицинское обслуживание – free medical care serve (служение) serving(сервировка)
комплексное обслуживание – complex serving handlin (обработка)
наземное обслуживание – ground handling attendance (посещение)
медицинское обслуживание – medical attendanc учеба сущ ж
study, learning, training, tuition (обучение)
учеба за границей – study abroad
постоянная учеба – continuous learning
техническая учеба – technical training
school, education, schooling (школа, образование)
заключенный сущ imprisoned заключенный прич
prisoner, inmate, detainee, convictchild, kid, baby, infant, youngster
(дитя, малыш, младенец, подросток) маленький ребенок – small child
дети из школы – kids from school недоношенный ребенок – premature baby
(пленник, воспитанник, задержанный, осужденный) политический заключенный – political prisoner новый заключенный – new inmate мужик сущ м
muzhik, peasant (крестьянин) местные мужики – local peasants man, guy
(человек, парень лысый мужик – bald guy пьяный мужик – drunken man
женщины сущ жwomenwomanhood(женственность) womankind womenfolk женщина сущ ж
woman, female, lady, girl(баба, самка, дама, девушка) беременная женщина – pregnant woman
продолжительность жизни женщин – female life expectancy wife (жена) dame squaw (скво Judy политические заключенные – political detainees беглый заключенный – escaped convict concluded service (услуга) таможенная служба – customs service office, department, branch (офис, отдел, отделение)
метеорологическая служба – meteorological office сервисная служба – service departmen duty (обязанность)
действительная служба – active duty employment, job
(занятость, работа) государственная служба – government job corps (корпус)службы сущ ж service buildin (здание) (заключаемый)
contained, enclosed, encased(содержащийся, вложенный)
incarcerated, jailed, detaine (тюрьма, задержанный) день учебы – day of school дальнейшая учеба – further education University, collegevarsity state University
(государственный университет) Law Business Economic
academically, президиум) налоговое управление – tax office управление здравоохранения – health departmentoperation(эксплуатация)
управление предприятием – operation of businessgovernment
(правительство) городское управление – municipal governmen running(запуск) сервер под управлением – server computer zone 2217 runnin
governance, direction, stewardship(руководство)
надлежащее управление – good governance управление ресурсами – stewardship of resourcesmanaging
(управляющий) управление приложениями – managing applicationshandling(обработка)
точное управление – precise handlingmanagerial
процесс управления – managerial process
administer(администрирование)ruling(решение)superintendence(надзор)List of states
Short and formal names Membership within the UN System[a] Sovereignty dispute[b] Further information on status and recognition of sovereignty[d]
↓ UN member states and observer states ↓
Abkhazia → Abkhazia
Afghanistan – Islamic Republic of Afghanistan UN member state None
Albania – Republic of Albania UN member state None
Algeria – People's Democratic Republic of Algeria UN member state None
Andorra – Principality of Andorra UN member state None Andorra is a co-principality in which the office of head of state is jointly held ex officio by the French president and the bishop of the Roman Catholic diocese of Urgell,[2] who himself is appointed by the Holy See.
Angola – Republic of Angola UN member state None
Antigua and Barbuda UN member state None Antigua and Barbuda is a Commonwealth realm[e] with 1 autonomous region, Barbuda.[f]
Argentina – Argentine Republic[g] UN member state None Argentina is a federation of 23 provinces and 1 autonomous city.
Armenia – Republic of Armenia UN member state Not recognized by Pakistan[4][5][6] See Armenia–Pakistan relations and Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
Artsakh → Artsakh
Australia – Commonwealth of Australia UN member state None Australia is a Commonwealth realm[e] and a federation of six states and 10 territories. The external territories of Australia are:
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Australian Antarctic Territory
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Coral Sea Islands Territory
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
Norfolk Island
Austria – Republic of Austria UN member state None Member of the European Union.[c] Austria is a federation of nine states (Bundesländer).
Azerbaijan – Republic of Azerbaijan UN member state None Azerbaijan contains two autonomous regions, Nakhchivan and Nagorno-Karabakh (Dağlıq Qarabağ).[f] The Republic of Artsakh, a de facto state, has been established in the latter.
Bahamas, The – Commonwealth of the Bahamas UN member state None The Bahamas is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Bahrain – Kingdom of Bahrain UN member state None
Bangladesh – People's Republic of Bangladesh UN member state None
Barbados UN member state None Barbados is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Belarus – Republic of Belarus UN member state None Belarus forms the Union State jointly with Russia.
Belgium – Kingdom of Belgium UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Belgium is a federation divided into linguistic communities and regions.
Belize UN member state None Belize is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Benin – Republic of Benin[h] UN member state None
Bhutan – Kingdom of Bhutan UN member state None
Bolivia – Plurinational State of Bolivia UN member state None
Bosnia and Herzegovina UN member state None Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federation of two constituent units:
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Republika Srpska
and Brčko District, a self-governing administrative unit.[8]
Botswana – Republic of Botswana UN member state None
Brazil – Federative Republic of Brazil UN member state None Brazil is a federation of 26 states and 1 federal district.
Brunei – Nation of Brunei, Abode of Peace UN member state None
Bulgaria – Republic of Bulgaria UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Burkina Faso[i] UN member state None
Burma → Myanmar
Burundi – Republic of Burundi UN member state None
Cambodia – Kingdom of Cambodia UN member state None
Cameroon – Republic of Cameroon UN member state None
Canada[j] UN member state None Canada is a Commonwealth realm[e] and a federation of 10 provinces and three territories.
Cape Verde – Republic of Cabo Verde UN member state None
Central African Republic UN member state None
Chad – Republic of Chad UN member state None
Chile – Republic of Chile UN member state None Chile has two "special territories" in the Valparaíso Region: Easter Island and Juan Fernández Islands
China – People's Republic of China[k] UN member state Partially unrecognized. Claimed by the Republic of China The People's Republic of China (PRC) contains five autonomous regions, Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Xinjiang and Tibet.[f] Additionally, it has sovereignty over the Special Administrative Regions of:
Hong Kong
Macau
China claims, but does not control Taiwan, which is governed by a rival administration (the Republic of China) that claims all of China as its territory.[l]
China is not recognised by 20 UN member states and the Holy See, which with the exception of Bhutan, recognise Taiwan instead.[m]
China controls part of the territory of Kashmir, which is disputed by India and Pakistan.
China, Republic of → Taiwan
Colombia – Republic of Colombia UN member state None
Comoros – Union of the Comoros UN member state None Comoros is a federation of 3 islands.[n]
Congo, Democratic Republic of the[o] UN member state None
Congo, Republic of the[p] UN member state None
Cook Islands → Cook Islands
Costa Rica – Republic of Costa Rica UN member state None
Côte d'Ivoire → Ivory Coast
Croatia – Republic of Croatia UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Cuba – Republic of Cuba UN member state None
Cyprus – Republic of Cyprus UN member state Not recognized by Turkey[10] Member of the EU.[c] The northeastern part of the island is the de facto state of Northern Cyprus. See Foreign relations of Cyprus and Cyprus dispute. Turkey refers to the Republic of Cyprus government as "The Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus".[11]
Czech Republic[q] UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Democratic People's Republic of Korea → Korea, North
Democratic Republic of the Congo → Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Denmark – Kingdom of Denmark UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] The Kingdom of Denmark includes two self-governing territories:
Faroe Islands (Føroyar/Færøerne)
Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat/Grønland)
The continental territory of Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland form the three constituent countries of the Kingdom. The designation "Denmark" can refer either to continental Denmark or to the short name for the entire Kingdom (e.g. in international organizations). The Kingdom of Denmark as a whole is a member of the EU, but EU law does not apply to the Faroe Islands and Greenland.[12][13] Also see Greenland Treaty.
Djibouti – Republic of Djibouti UN member state None
Dominica – Commonwealth of Dominica UN member state None
Dominican Republic UN member state None
East Timor – Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste[r] UN member state None
Ecuador – Republic of Ecuador UN member state None
Egypt – Arab Republic of Egypt UN member state None
El Salvador – Republic of El Salvador UN member state None
Equatorial Guinea – Republic of Equatorial Guinea UN member state None
Eritrea – State of Eritrea UN member state None
Estonia – Republic of Estonia UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Ethiopia – Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia UN member state None Ethiopia is a federation of nine regions and two chartered cities.
Fiji – Republic of Fiji UN member state None Fiji contains 1 autonomous region, Rotuma.[f][14][15]
Finland – Republic of Finland UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Åland is a neutral and demilitarised autonomous region of Finland.[f][s]
France – French Republic UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] France contains five overseas regions/departments: French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion. France also includes the overseas territories of:
Clipperton Island
French Polynesia
New Caledonia
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Wallis and Futuna
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Gabon – Gabonese Republic UN member state None
Gambia, The – Republic of the Gambia UN member state None
Georgia UN member state None Georgia contains two autonomous republics, Adjara and Abkhazia.[f] In Abkhazia and South Ossetia, de facto states have been formed.
Germany – Federal Republic of Germany UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Germany is a federation of 16 federated states (Länder).
Ghana – Republic of Ghana UN member state None
Greece – Hellenic Republic UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Mount Athos is an autonomous part of Greece that is jointly governed by the multinational "Holy Community" on the mountain and a civil governor appointed by the Greek government.[16]
Grenada UN member state None Grenada is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Guatemala – Republic of Guatemala UN member state None
Guinea – Republic of Guinea[t] UN member state None
Guinea-Bissau – Republic of Guinea-Bissau UN member state None
Guyana – Co-operative Republic of Guyana UN member state None
Haiti – Republic of Haiti UN member state None
Holy See → Vatican City
Honduras – Republic of Honduras UN member state None
Hungary UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Iceland[u] UN member state None
India – Republic of India UN member state None India is a federation of 29 states and seven union territories. India claims the entire territory of Kashmir as one of its states, but only exercises control over part of it, while the rest is controlled by the People's Republic of China and Pakistan.
Indonesia – Republic of Indonesia UN member state None Indonesia has five provinces with official special autonomy status: Aceh, Jakarta SCR, Yogyakarta SR, Papua, and West Papua.[f]
Iran – Islamic Republic of Iran UN member state None
Iraq – Republic of Iraq UN member state None Iraq is a federation[n][20] of 19 governorates, five of which make up the autonomous Iraqi Kurdistan.[f]
Ireland[22] UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Israel – State of Israel UN member state Partially unrecognized Israel exerts strong control over the territory claimed by Palestine. Israel annexed East Jerusalem,[23] an annexation not recognised by the international community.[24] Israel maintains varying levels of control over the rest of the West Bank, and although Israel no longer has a permanent civilian or military presence in the Gaza Strip, following its unilateral disengagement, it is still considered by some to be the occupying power under international law.[25][26][27][28][29] Israel is not recognised as a state by 32 UN members (including most Arab states) nor by the SADR.
Italy – Italian Republic UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Italy has five autonomous regions, Aosta Valley, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily and Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol.[f]
Ivory Coast – Republic of Côte d'Ivoire UN member state None
Jamaica UN member state None Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Japan UN member state None
Jordan – Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan UN member state None
Kazakhstan – Republic of Kazakhstan UN member state None
Kenya – Republic of Kenya UN member state None
Kiribati – Republic of Kiribati UN member state None
Korea, North – Democratic People's Republic of Korea UN member state Claimed by South Korea North Korea is not recognised by three UN members: France, Japan and South Korea.[v]
Korea, South – Republic of Korea UN member state Claimed by North Korea South Korea contains 1 autonomous region, Jejudo.[f][31] South Korea is not recognised by one UN member: North Korea.[v]
Kosovo → Kosovo
Kuwait – State of Kuwait UN member state None
Kyrgyzstan – Kyrgyz Republic UN member state None
Laos – Lao People's Democratic Republic UN member state None
Latvia – Republic of Latvia UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Lebanon – Lebanese Republic UN member state None
Lesotho – Kingdom of Lesotho UN member state None
Liberia – Republic of Liberia UN member state None
Libya UN member state None
Liechtenstein – Principality of Liechtenstein UN member state None
Lithuania – Republic of Lithuania UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Luxembourg – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Macedonia – Republic of Macedonia UN member state None Because of the Macedonia naming dispute, the country is referred to by the UN and a number of states and international organizations as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia".
Madagascar – Republic of Madagascar UN member state None
Malawi – Republic of Malawi UN member state None
Malaysia UN member state None Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories.
Maldives – Republic of Maldives UN member state None
Mali – Republic of Mali UN member state None
Malta – Republic of Malta UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Marshall Islands – Republic of the Marshall Islands UN member state None Under Compact of Free Association with the United States.
Mauritania – Islamic Republic of Mauritania UN member state None
Mauritius – Republic of Mauritius UN member state None Mauritius has an autonomous island, Rodrigues.[f]
Mexico – United Mexican States UN member state None Mexico is a federation of 31 states and one autonomous city.
Micronesia – Federated States of Micronesia UN member state None Under Compact of Free Association with the United States. The Federated States of Micronesia is a federation of four states.
Moldova – Republic of Moldova UN member state None Moldova has the autonomous regions of Gagauzia and Transnistria, the latter of which has established a de facto state.
Monaco – Principality of Monaco UN member state None
Mongolia UN member state None
Montenegro UN member state None
Morocco – Kingdom of Morocco UN member state None Morocco claims sovereignty over Western Sahara and controls most of it, which is disputed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
Mozambique – Republic of Mozambique UN member state None
Myanmar – Republic of the Union of Myanmar[w] UN member state None
Namibia – Republic of Namibia UN member state None
Nauru – Republic of Nauru UN member state None
Nepal – Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal UN member state None Nepal is a federation composed of 14 zones.
Netherlands – Kingdom of the Netherlands UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] The Kingdom of the Netherlands includes four areas with substantial autonomy:
Aruba
Curaçao
Netherlands
Sint Maarten
The continental part of the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten form the four constituent countries of the Kingdom. Three other territories (Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius) are special municipalities of the continental Netherlands.
The designation "Netherlands" can refer either to the continental Netherlands or to the short name for the entire Kingdom (e.g. in international organizations). The Kingdom of the Netherlands as a whole is a member of the EU, but EU law applies only to parts within Europe.
New Zealand UN member state None New Zealand is a Commonwealth realm,[e] and has the dependent territories of:
Ross Dependency
Tokelau
New Zealand has responsibilities for (but no rights of control over) two freely associated states:
Cook Islands
Niue
The Cook Islands and Niue have diplomatic relations with 41 and 19 UN members respectively.[33][34][35] They have full treaty-making capacity in the UN,[36] and are members of some UN specialized agencies.
Nicaragua – Republic of Nicaragua UN member state None Nicaragua contains two autonomous regions, Atlántico Sur and Atlántico Norte.[f]
Niger – Republic of Niger UN member state None
Nigeria – Federal Republic of Nigeria UN member state None Nigeria is a federation of 36 states and 1 federal territory.
Niue → Niue
Northern Cyprus → Northern Cyprus
North Korea → Korea, North
Norway – Kingdom of Norway UN member state None
Svalbard is an integral part of Norway, but has a special status due to the Svalbard Treaty.
Jan Mayen is an island that is an integral part of Norway, although unincorporated.
Norway has the dependent territories of:
Bouvet Island
Peter I Island
Queen Maud Land
Oman – Sultanate of Oman UN member state None
Pakistan – Islamic Republic of Pakistan UN member state None Pakistan is a federation of four provinces, 1 capital territory, and tribal regions. Pakistan disputes the entire territory of Kashmir with India, and part of it with the People's Republic of China. It exercises control over certain portions of Kashmir, but has not officially annexed any of it,[37][38] instead regarding it as a disputed territory.[39][40] The portions that it controls are divided into two territories, administered separately from Pakistan proper:[x]
Azad Kashmir
Gilgit Baltistan
Azad Kashmir describes itself as a "self-governing state under Pakistani control", while Gilgit-Baltistan is described in its governance order as a group of "areas" with self-government.[41][42] These territories are not usually regarded as sovereign, as they do not fulfill the criteria set out by the declarative theory of statehood (for example, their current laws do not allow them to engage independently in relations with other states). Several state functions of these territories (such as foreign affairs and defence) are performed by Pakistan.[42][43][44]
Palau – Republic of Palau UN member state None Under Compact of Free Association with the United States.
Palestine – State of Palestine UN observer state; member of one UN specialized agency Partially unrecognized. Disputed by Israel The declared State of Palestine has received diplomatic recognition from 136 states.[45] The proclaimed state has no agreed territorial borders, or effective control on much of the territory that it proclaimed.[46] The Palestinian National Authority is an interim administrative body formed as a result of the Oslo Accords that exercises limited autonomous jurisdiction within the Palestinian territories. In foreign relations, Palestine is represented by the Palestine Liberation Organization.[47] The State of Palestine is a member state of UNESCO,[48] and an observer state in the UN.
Panama – Republic of Panama UN member state None
Papua New Guinea – Independent State of Papua New Guinea UN member state None Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm[e] with 1 autonomous region, Bougainville.[f]
Paraguay – Republic of Paraguay UN member state None
Peru – Republic of Peru UN member state None
Philippines – Republic of the Philippines UN member state None The Philippines contains one autonomous region, Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.[f]
Poland – Republic of Poland UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Portugal – Portuguese Republic UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Portugal contains two autonomous regions, Azores and Madeira.[f]
Pridnestrovie → Transnistria
Qatar – State of Qatar UN member state None
Republic of Korea → Korea, South
Republic of the Congo → Congo, Republic of the
Romania UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Russia – Russian Federation UN member state None Russia is officially a federation of 85 federal subjects (republics, oblasts, krais, autonomous okrugs, federal cities, and an autonomous oblast). Several of the federal subjects are ethnic republics.[f] Russia also forms the Union State jointly with Belarus.
Rwanda – Republic of Rwanda UN member state None
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic → Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Saint Kitts and Nevis – Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis UN member state None Saint Kitts and Nevis is a Commonwealth realm[e] and is a federation[n] of two islands, St. Kitts and Nevis.
Saint Lucia UN member state None Saint Lucia is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines UN member state None Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Samoa – Independent State of Samoa UN member state None
San Marino – Republic of San Marino UN member state None
São Tomé and Príncipe – Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe UN member state None São Tomé and Príncipe contains 1 autonomous province, Príncipe.[f]
Saudi Arabia – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia UN member state None
Senegal – Republic of Senegal UN member state None
Serbia – Republic of Serbia UN member state None Serbia contains two autonomous regions, Vojvodina and Kosovo and Metohija.[f] The latter is under the de facto control of the Republic of Kosovo.
Seychelles – Republic of Seychelles UN member state None
Sierra Leone – Republic of Sierra Leone UN member state None
Singapore – Republic of Singapore UN member state None
Slovakia – Slovak Republic UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Slovenia – Republic of Slovenia UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Solomon Islands UN member state None The Solomon Islands is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Somalia – Federal Republic of Somalia UN member state None Somalia has two self-declared autonomous regions: Puntland and Galmudug, while the territory of Somaliland has formed an unrecognised de facto state.
Somaliland → Somaliland
South Africa – Republic of South Africa UN member state None
South Korea → Korea, South
South Ossetia → South Ossetia
South Sudan – Republic of South Sudan UN member state None South Sudan is a federation of 28 states.
Spain – Kingdom of Spain UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities and 2 special autonomous cities.[f]
Sri Lanka – Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka UN member state None Formerly known as Ceylon.
Sudan – Republic of the Sudan UN member state None Sudan is a federation of 18 states.
Sudan, South → South Sudan
Suriname – Republic of Suriname UN member state None
Swaziland – Kingdom of Swaziland UN member state None
Sweden – Kingdom of Sweden UN member state None Member of the EU.[c]
Switzerland – Swiss Confederation UN member state None Switzerland is a federation of 26 cantons.
Syria – Syrian Arab Republic UN member state None The Syrian National Coalition, which is recognized as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people by 20 UN members, has established an interim government to rule rebel controlled territory during the Syrian civil war.
Syria has one self-declared autonomous region: Rojava
Taiwan (Republic of China) → Taiwan
Tajikistan – Republic of Tajikistan UN member state None Tajikistan contains 1 autonomous region, Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province.[f]
Tanzania – United Republic of Tanzania UN member state None Tanzania contains 1 autonomous region, Zanzibar.[f]
Thailand – Kingdom of Thailand UN member state None
Timor-Leste → East Timor
Togo – Togolese Republic UN member state None
Tonga – Kingdom of Tonga UN member state None
Transnistria → Transnistria
Trinidad and Tobago – Republic of Trinidad and Tobago UN member state None Trinidad and Tobago contains 1 autonomous region, Tobago.[f]
Tunisia – Tunisian Republic UN member state None
Turkey – Republic of Turkey UN member state None
Turkmenistan UN member state None
Tuvalu UN member state None Tuvalu is a Commonwealth realm.[e]
Uganda – Republic of Uganda UN member state None
Ukraine UN member state None
United Arab Emirates UN member state None The United Arab Emirates is a federation of seven emirates.
United Kingdom – United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UN member state None Member of the EU.[c] The United Kingdom is a Commonwealth realm[e] consisting of four constituent countries:
England
Northern Ireland
Scotland
Wales
The United Kingdom has the following overseas territories:
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Anguilla
Bermuda
British Indian Ocean Territory
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
Gibraltar
Montserrat
Pitcairn Islands
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
British Antarctic Territory
The British monarch has direct sovereignty over three self-governing Crown dependencies:
Guernsey
Isle of Man
Jersey
United States – United States of America UN member state None The United States is a federation of 50 states and 1 federal district. The United States has sovereignty over the following inhabited possessions and commonwealths:
American Samoa
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
It also has sovereignty over several uninhabited territories:
Baker Island
Howland Island
Jarvis Island
Johnston Atoll
Kingman Reef
Midway Atoll
Navassa Island
Wake Island
It also has sovereignty over the following incorporated territories:
Palmyra Atoll
Three sovereign states have become associated states of the United States under the Compact of Free Association:
Marshall Islands – Republic of the Marshall Islands
Micronesia – Federated States of Micronesia
Palau – Republic of Palau
It also disputes sovereignty over the following territories:
Bajo Nuevo Bank
Serranilla Bank
Uruguay – Oriental Republic of Uruguay UN member state None
Uzbekistan – Republic of Uzbekistan UN member state None Uzbekistan contains 1 autonomous region, Karakalpakstan.[f]
Vanuatu – Republic of Vanuatu UN member state None
Vatican City – Vatican City State UN observer state under the designation of "Holy See"; member of three UN specialized agencies and the IAEA None Administered by the Holy See, a sovereign entity with diplomatic ties to 183 states – 180 UN member states, one UN observer state (Palestine), the Cook Islands and the Republic of China (Taiwan).[49] The Holy See is a member of the IAEA, ITU, UPU, and WIPO and a permanent observer of the UN (in the category of "Non-member State")[47] and multiple other UN System organizations. The Vatican City is governed by officials appointed by the Pope, who is the Bishop of the Diocese of Rome and ex officio sovereign of Vatican City.
Venezuela – Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela UN member state Venezuela is a federation of 23 states, 1 capital district, and federal dependencies.
Vietnam – Socialist Republic of Vietnam UN member state
Yemen – Republic of Yemen UN member state
Zambia – Republic of Zambia UN member state
Zimbabwe – Republic of Zimbabwe UN member state
↑ UN member states and observer states ↑
↓ Other states ↓
Abkhazia – Republic of Abkhazia No membership Claimed by Georgia Recognised by Russia, Nauru, Nicaragua, Venezuela,[50] Artsakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria.[51] Claimed in whole by Georgia as the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia.
Artsakh – Republic of Artsakh No membership Claimed by Azerbaijan A de facto independent state,[52][53][54] recognized only by Abkhazia,[55] South Ossetia[55] and Transnistria.[55][56] Claimed in whole by Azerbaijan.[57]
Cook Islands Member of eight UN specialized agencies None
(See political status) A state in free association with New Zealand, the Cook Islands maintains diplomatic relations with 44 states. The Cook Islands is a member of multiple UN agencies with full treaty making capacity.[36] It shares a head of state with New Zealand as well as having shared citizenship.
Kosovo – Republic of Kosovo Member of two UN specialized agencies Claimed by Serbia Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, Kosovo was placed under the administration of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo in 1999.[58] Kosovo declared independence in 2008, and it has received diplomatic recognition from 111 UN member states and the Republic of China. Serbia continues to maintain its sovereignty claim over Kosovo. Other UN member states and non UN member states continue to recognise Serbian sovereignty or have taken no position on the question. Kosovo is a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group. The Republic of Kosovo has de facto control over most of the territory, with limited control in North Kosovo.
Niue Member of five UN specialized agencies None
(See political status) A state in free association with New Zealand, Niue maintains diplomatic relations with 21 states. Niue is a member of multiple UN agencies with full treaty making capacity.[36] It shares a head of state with New Zealand as well as having shared citizenship.
Northern Cyprus – Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus No membership Claimed by the Republic of Cyprus Recognised only by Turkey. Under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", it is an observer state of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Economic Cooperation Organization. Northern Cyprus is claimed in whole by the Republic of Cyprus.[59]
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic No membership Claimed by Morocco Recognised at some stage by 84 UN member states, 38 of which have since withdrawn or frozen their recognition. It is a founding member of the African Union and the Asian-African Strategic Partnership formed at the 2005 Asian-African Conference. The territories under its control, the so-called Free Zone, are claimed in whole by Morocco as part of its Southern Provinces. In turn, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic claims the part of Western Sahara to the west of the Moroccan Wall controlled by Morocco. Its government resides in exile in Tindouf, Algeria.
Somaliland – Republic of Somaliland No membership Claimed by Somalia A de facto independent state,[52][60][61][62][63] not diplomatically recognised by any other state, claimed in whole by the Federal Republic of Somalia.[64]
South Ossetia – Republic of South Ossetia No membership Claimed by Georgia A de facto independent state,[65] recognised by Russia, Nicaragua, Nauru, Venezuela,[50] Abkhazia, Artsakh and Transnistria.[51] Claimed in whole by Georgia as the Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia.[66]
Taiwan – Republic of China[k] Former UN member (as Republic of China, 1945-1971) Observer in one UN specialized agency under the name "Chinese Taipei" Claimed by the People's Republic of China A state competing (nominally) for recognition with the People's Republic of China as the government of China since 1949. The Republic of China controls the island of Taiwan and associated islands, Quemoy, Matsu, the Pratas and parts of the Spratly Islands,[y] and has not renounced claims over its annexed territories on the mainland.[67] The Republic of China is recognised by 19 UN member states and the Holy See as of 13 June 2017. The territory of the Republic of China is claimed in whole by the People's Republic of China.[l] The Republic of China participates in international organizations under a variety of pseudonyms, most commonly "Chinese Taipei" and in the WTO it has full membership. The Republic of China was a founding member of the UN and enjoyed membership from 1945 to 1971, with veto power in the UN Security Council. See China and the United Nations.
Transnistria – Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic No membership Claimed by Moldova A de facto independent state,[52] recognised only by Abkhazia, Artsakh and South Ossetia.[51] Claimed in whole by Moldova as the Transnistria autonomous territorial unit.[68]
↑ Other states ↑
Legend "Membership within the UN system" column
UN Member states
UN Observer states
Member of a UN Specialized Agency
Observer in a UN Specialized Agency
No membership in the UN system
Legend "Sovereignty dispute" column
Undisputed sovereignty +Список стран по количеству заключённых
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Число заключённых на 100 000 граждан по странам, 2015
Список стран по количеству заключённых основан на данных Международного центра тюремных исследований (ICPS) и включает количество заключённых на 100 000 жителей и абсолютное количество заключённых.
Содержание
1 Численность
1.1 США
1.2 Россия
2 Список
3 См. также
4 Примечания
Численность
По некоторым оценкам, в 2006 году по всему миру в заключении содержалось по меньшей мере 9,25 млн человек[1]. Однако реальное число заключённых, возможно, гораздо выше, поскольку отсутствуют надёжные сведения из ряда стран, особенно с авторитарными политическими режимами.
США
США лидируют по количеству заключённых в абсолютном значении — около 2,2 млн человек находятся за решёткой. Это 25 % всех заключенных планеты (больше чем в 35 крупнейших европейских странах, вместе взятых, и на 40 % больше, чем в Китае), хотя население США составляет всего 5 % населения мира. Среди этих заключённых около 71 тысячи — несовершеннолетние. Содержание пенитенциарной системы обходится налогоплательщикам США в 80 млрд долларов ежегодно[2][3][4].
В относительных цифрах, однако есть подвох - 32 процента заключенных в США - иностранные граждане,[5] , т.е. фактически в США 452 заключенных жителей на 100 000 человек.
Соединённые Штаты Америки также обладают первенством в удельном числе граждан, находящихся за решёткой: по состоянию на 2015 год около 700 человек из каждых ста тысяч отбывали срок, были задержаны по подозрению в совершении преступления либо находились под стражей в ожидании суда[6]. Согласно статистике, афро- и латиноамериканцы составляют 30 % от населения США, и в то же время — 60 % от всех американских заключённых. Каждый 35-й афроамериканец находится или находился за решёткой. Среди латиноамериканцев — каждый 88-й, а среди белых — каждый 214-й[7]. Стоимость содержания заключённых различается в разных штатах США. В штате Нью-Йорк в 2010 году стоимость содержания одного заключённого в сутки составляла 210 долларов[8].
Россия
По данным Федеральной службы исполнения наказаний (ФСИН), в России число заключенных, находящихся в местах лишения свободы, уменьшилось до самого низкого уровня со времен распада СССР и составило на 1 марта 2017 г. около 626 тыс. человек, в том числе почти 49 тыс. женщин.[9] По состоянию на 1 мая 2018 г. в учреждениях уголовно-исполнительной системы содержалось 595 728 чел.
По официальным данным в 2008 году работало 12 % российских заключенных[10].
Список
Список стран по количеству заключённых по данным ICPS за 2018 год
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Страна или территория Заключённых на
100 000 человек[11] Заключённых
всего[12]
Flag of the United States.svg США 666[13] 2145100
Flag of El Salvador.svg Сальвадор 614 39281
Flag of Turkmenistan.svg Туркмения 583 30568
Flag of the United States Virgin Islands.svg Виргинские Острова (США) 542 577
Flag of Maldives.svg Мальдивы 514 1880
Flag of Cuba.svg Куба 510 57337
Flag of the Northern Mariana Islands.svg Северные Марианские Острова (США) 482 270
Flag of Thailand.svg Таиланд 478 330774
Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg Виргинские Острова (Великобритания) 470 134
Flag of Seychelles.svg Сейшельские Острова 448 433
Bahamas Flag.svg Багамы 439 1727
Flag of Guam.svg Гуам (США) 438 756
Flag of Grenada.svg Гренада 435 465
Flag of Rwanda.svg Руанда 434 54279
Flag of Russia.svg Россия 405 595 728
Flag of Panama.svg Панама 393 16151
Flag of Saint Kitts and Nevis.svg Сент-Китс и Невис 393 220
Flag of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.svg Сент-Винсент и Гренадины 378 412
Flag of Costa Rica (state).svg Коста-Рика 374 19226
Flag of the Cayman Islands (pre-1999).svg Острова Кайман (Великобритания) 359 222
Flag of Belize.svg Белиз 356 1297
Flag of Antigua and Barbuda.svg Антигуа и Барбуда 352 331
Flag of Saint-Martin (fictional).svg Сен-Мартен (Нидерланды) 347 161
Flag of Palau.svg Палау 343 72
Flag of Brazil.svg Бразилия 324 672722
Flag of American Samoa.svg Американское Самоа (США) 323 182
Flag of Barbados.svg Барбадос 322 927
Flag of Uruguay.svg Уругвай 321 11078
Flag of Bermuda.svg Бермуды (Великобритания) 319 209
Flag of Belarus.svg Белоруссия 314 29776
Flag of Puerto Rico.svg Пуэрто-Рико (США) 313 10475
Flag of Anguilla.svg Ангилья (Великобритания) 307 46
Flag of Cape Verde.svg Кабо-Верде 306 1569
Flag of Bahrain.svg Бахрейн 301 4028
Flag of Namibia.svg Намибия 295 7400
Flag of Iran.svg Иран 287 225624
Flag of South Africa.svg ЮАР 286 161054
Flag of Turkey.svg Турция 285 229790
Flag of Eswatini.svg Свазиленд 282 3610
Flag of France.svg Гвиана (Франция) 281 777
Flag of Saint Lucia.svg Сент-Люсия 279 525
Flag of Guyana.svg Гайана 278 2113
Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Тринидад и Тобаго 270 3667
Flag of Peru (state).svg Перу 267 85621
Flag of the Republic of China.svg Китайская Республика 265 62445
Flag of Israel.svg Израиль 265 21072
Flag of Mongolia.svg Монголия 262 7690
Flag of Samoa.svg Самоа 257 500
Flag of Georgia.svg Грузия 254 9451
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg Доминиканская Республика 247 180
Flag of Dominica.svg Доминика 247 219
Flag of Azerbaijan.svg Азербайджан 239 23311
Flag of Lithuania.svg Литва 235 6616
Flag of Morocco.svg Марокко 232 82512
Flag of Chile.svg Чили 229 41666
Flag of the Cook Islands.svg Острова Кука 229 48
Flag of Colombia.svg Колумбия 226 115396
Flag of Greenland.svg Гренландия (Дания) 226 126
Flag of Curaçao.svg Кюрасао (Нидерланды) 225 348
Flag of New Zealand.svg Новая Зеландия 220 10695
Flag of Latvia.svg Латвия 218 4243
Snake Flag of Martinique.svg Мартиника (Франция) 217 836
Flag of Moldova.svg Молдавия 215 7635
Flag of Singapore.svg Сингапур 213 12219
Flag of Botswana.svg Ботсвана 210 4376
Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Чехия 209 22198
Flag of Tunisia.svg Тунис 206 23553
Flag of Macau.svg Макао (КНР) 203 1295
Flag of Estonia.svg Эстония 202 2664
Flag of Honduras.svg Гондурас 200 17253
Flag of FLNKS.svg Новая Каледония (Франция) 198 482
Flag of Poland.svg Польша 197 74896
Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Казахстан 194 39219
Unofficial flag of Guadeloupe (local).svg Гваделупа (Франция) 192 535
Flag of Gabon.svg Габон 191 3373
Flag of Slovakia.svg Словакия 187 10184
Flag of Albania.svg Албания 187 5580
Flag of Argentina.svg Аргентина 186 81975
Flag of Hungary.svg Венгрия 184 17963
Flag of Suriname.svg Суринам 183 1000
Flag of Montenegro.svg Черногория 182 1131
Flag of Paraguay.svg Парагвай 180 12741
Flag of Mauritius.svg Маврикий 177 2264
Flag of French Polynesia.svg Французская Полинезия (Франция) 176 510
Flag of Cambodia.svg Камбоджа 176 28414
Flag of Venezuela (state).svg Венесуэла 173 54738
Flag of the Philippines.svg Филиппины 172 178661
Flag of Kyrgyzstan.svg Киргизия 171 10574
Flag of Nicaragua.svg Никарагуа 171 10569
Flag of Mexico.svg Мексика 169 208689
Flag of Australia.svg Австралия 167 41277
Flag of Ukraine.svg Украина 167 60771
Flag of Malaysia.svg Малайзия 167 51602
Flag of Tonga.svg Тонга 166 176
Flag of Gibraltar.svg Гибралтар (Великобритания) 165 56
Flag of Aruba.svg Аруба (Нидерланды) 165 170
Flag of Armenia.svg Армения 162 4873
Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Саудовская Аравия 161 47000
Flag of Ecuador.svg Эквадор 160 26421
Flag of Fiji.svg Фиджи 158 1423
Flag of Macedonia.svg Македония 156 3222
Flag of Algeria.svg Алжир 155 61000
Flag of Serbia.svg Сербия 152 10654
Flag of Jordan.svg Иордания 150 11489
Flag of Uzbekistan.svg Узбекистан 150 43900
Flag of Kuwait.svg Кувейт 147 5400
Flag of Zambia.svg Замбия 146 25000
Flag of Myanmar.svg Мьянма 145 79668
Flag of Bhutan.svg Бутан 145 1119
Flag of England.svg Англия + Flag of Wales (1959–present).svg Уэльс (Великобритания) 142 84235
Flag of Nauru.svg Науру 140 14
Flag of Guernsey.svg Гернси (Великобритания) 138 91
Flag of Jamaica.svg Ямайка 138 3866
Flag of Guatemala.svg Гватемала 136 23358
Flag of Scotland.svg Шотландия (Великобритания) 136 7430
Flag of Brunei.svg Бруней 134 565
Flag of Jersey.svg Джерси (Великобритания) 133 140
Flag of Malta.svg Мальта 133 588
Flag of Portugal.svg Португалия 131 13453
Flag of Bolivia (state).svg Боливия 130 14598
Flag of Uganda.svg Уганда 129 54059
Flag of Lebanon.svg Ливан 128 6500
Flag of Ethiopia.svg Эфиопия 127 113727
Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia.svg Микронезия 127 132
Flag of Spain.svg Испания 126 58950
Flag of Bulgaria.svg Болгария 125 9028
Flag of Iraq.svg Ирак 123 42880
Flag of Vietnam.svg Вьетнам 122 115035
Flag of Cameroon.svg Камерун 121 29341
Flag of Tajikistan.svg Таджикистан 121 9317
Flag of Zimbabwe.svg Зимбабве 120 19521
Flag of Mayotte (local).svg Майотта (Франция) 119 296
Flag of Laos.svg Лаос 119 8201
Flag of Romania.svg Румыния 118 22988
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg КНР 118 1649804
Flag of Hong Kong.svg Гонконг (КНР) 117 8611
Flag of Egypt.svg Египет 116 106000
Flag of Réunion.svg Реюньон (Франция) 115 1057
Flag of Luxembourg.svg Люксембург 115 690
Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg Канада 114 41145
Flag of South Korea.svg Республика Корея 114 57451
Flag of Kenya.svg Кения 114 53841
Flag of Kiribati.svg Кирибати 113 129
Flag of Tuvalu.svg Тувалу 110 11
Flag of the Isle of Mann.svg Остров Мэн (Великобритания) 108 96
Flag of Kosovo.svg Республика Косово 106 1849
Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg ОАЭ 104 9826
Flag of France.svg Франция 102 68974
Flag of Libya.svg Ливия 99 6187
Flag of Haiti.svg Гаити 96 10512
Flag of Italy.svg Италия 96 58087
Flag of Angola.svg Ангола 96 24165
Flag of Belgium (civil).svg Бельгия 94 10619
Flag of Austria.svg Австрия 93 8290
Flag of Greece.svg Греция 93 9956
Flag of Lesotho.svg Лесото 92 2073
Flag of Indonesia.svg Индонезия 89 236812
Flag of Madagascar.svg Мадагаскар 88 22000
Flag of Burundi.svg Бурунди 86 10049
Flag of Sao Tome and Principe.svg Сан-Томе и Принсипи 85 178
Flag of Switzerland.svg Швейцария 82 6912
Флаг Ирландии Ирландия 80 3870
Flag of Malawi.svg Малави 79 14018
Flag of Sri Lanka.svg Шри-Ланка 78 16990
Flag of Croatia.svg Хорватия 78 3228
Flag of Cyprus.svg Кипр 77 654
Flag of Germany.svg Германия 77 64223
Великобритания Северная Ирландия (Великобритания) 76 1425
Flag of Afghanistan.svg Афганистан 74 27527
Flag of Norway.svg Норвегия 74 3933
Flag of Monaco.svg Монако 74 28
Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg Соломоновы Острова 73 435
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg Босния и Герцеговина 73 1722
Flag of Vanuatu.svg Вануату 71 192
Flag of Benin.svg Бенин 68 7890
Flag of Djibouti.svg Джибути 66 600
Сербия Республика Сербская (Босния и Герцеговина) 66 863
Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg Маршалловы Острова 66 35
Flag of Nepal.svg Непал 65 18881
Flag of Sierra Leone.svg Сьерра-Леоне 64 4179
Flag of Slovenia.svg Словения 64 1316
Flag of Papua New Guinea.svg Папуа — Новая Гвинея 63 4945
Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg Экваториальная Гвинея 63 500
Flag of Togo.svg Того 62 4427
Flag of Senegal.svg Сенегал 60 9422
Flag of Syria.svg Сирия 60 10599
Flag of the Netherlands.svg Нидерланды 59 10102
Flag of Denmark.svg Дания 58 3418
Flag of Tanzania.svg Танзания 58 31382
Flag of The Gambia.svg Гамбия 58 1121
Flag of Mozambique.svg Мозамбик 57 15976
Flag of Sweden.svg Швеция 57 5630
Flag of Finland.svg Финляндия 57 3174
Flag of East Timor.svg Восточный Тимор 56 669
Flag of Niger.svg Нигер 53 10383
Flag of Andorra.svg Андорра 53 41
Flag of Yemen.svg Йемен 53 14000
Flag of Qatar.svg Катар 53 1150
Flag of South Sudan.svg Южный Судан 52 6504
Flag of Côte d'Ivoire.svg Кот-д’Ивуар 51 11192
Flag of Sudan.svg Судан 50 19101
Flag of Bangladesh.svg Бангладеш 48 79280
Flag of Ghana.svg Гана 48 13995
Flag of Japan.svg Япония 45 56805
Flag of Liberia.svg Либерия 44 2203
Flag of Pakistan.svg Пакистан 44 84315
Flag of Mauritania.svg Мавритания 44 1768
Flag of Burkina Faso.svg Буркина-Фасо 41 7544
Flag of Chad.svg Чад 39 4831
Flag of Iceland.svg Исландия 38 131
Flag of Nigeria.svg Нигерия 37 72179
Flag of Oman.svg Оман 36 1300
Индия Индия 33 419623
Flag of Mali.svg Мали 33 5209
Flag of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.svg Демократическая Республика Конго 29 20550
Flag of the Republic of the Congo.svg Республика Конго 27 1240
Flag of Liechtenstein.svg Лихтенштейн 27 10
Flag of Guinea.svg Гвинея 23 2900
Flag of the Comoros.svg Коморы 19 148
Flag of the Central African Republic.svg ЦАР 16 764
Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg Фареры (Дания) 19 6
Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg Гвинея-Бисау 10 196
См. также
Тюрьма+REGISTR OPEN PROGECT MENEDGMENT OPEN TREASHURE PRESIDENT+PROGRAME DEVELOPMENT CRIME+SOBOR SIONE JERUSALEM GENERAL+START GOVERNMENT DATE OPEN=TRIUMF GOD JESUS CHRIST+List of countries by incarceration rate
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A map of incarceration rates by country[1]
This is a list of countries by incarceration rate.[1]
Contents
1 Incarceration rates
2 Notes
2.1 Australia
2.2 China
2.3 North Korea
2.4 United Kingdom
2.5 United States
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Incarceration rates
This list is initially sorted alphabetically. Click the sorting cell (with the Sort both.gif icon) below the incarceration rate header to sort by rate. (Requires JavaScript.) The table can be sorted in ascending or descending order. The row number column stays static, and does not sort.
The chart source does not list an incarceration rate for the UK as a whole. In the list see Scotland, Northern Ireland, and England and Wales. If there is a rate for the United Kingdom in the table below it has been calculated by adding up the population of the constituent parts of the UK, and by adding up the prison populations.
If South Korea is not found in the table below look for it listed as Republic of (South) Korea. For info on North Korea, see notes below.
World Prison Brief WPB) may or may not incorporate juvenile incarceration numbers into the totals for each country. See the individual WPB country pages for more info.[1]
"Notes" column links to notes section below the chart.
"c." (circa) indicates "approximately". Sorting will not work correctly if it is in front of the number.
Italics is for a dependent territory, subnational area, etc..
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Incarceration populations and rates. From World Prison Brief.[1] Country (or dependent territory,
subnational area, etc.) Incarceration
Rate per
100,000
population Prison
Population
Percent of
prisoners
unsentenced Notes
Afghanistan 88 30,000 31.3
Albania 188 5,407 40.6
Algeria 146 60,000 8.6
American Samoa (United States) 345 193 14.9
Andorra 69 52 55.3
Angola 93 24,000 45.8
Anguilla (United Kingdom) 367 55 45.5
Antigua and Barbuda 321 305 37
Argentina 186 81,975 47.7
Armenia 119 3,536 37.1
Aruba (Netherlands) 165 170 16.6
Australia 172 42,942 31.3 Notes
Austria 98 8,692 21.3
Azerbaijan 235 23,320 20.6
Bahamas 438 1,746 42
Bahrain 234 3,485 25.7
Bangladesh 53 88,424 78.2
Barbados 300 874 48.9
Belarus 364 34,600 18.2
Belgium 88 10,073 35.6
Belize 356 1,297 30.1
Benin 68 7,890 75.8
Bermuda (United Kingdom) 319 209 9.6
Bhutan 145 1,119
Bolivia 156 17,946 69.9
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina 73 1,722 12.5
Republika Srpska (Bosnia and Herzegovina) 66 863 11.2
Botswana 208 4,343 24.5
Brazil 324 690,722 35.4
Brunei 134 565 7.1
Bulgaria 125 9,028 21.1
Burkina Faso 41 7,670 42
Burundi 84 10,093 51.1
Cambodia 176 28,414 70.6
Cameroon 121 29,341 56
Canada 114 41,145 38.6
Cape Verde 298 1,542 23.3
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom) 393 253 29.6
Central African Republic 16 764 70.2
Chad 59 8,000 63.4
Chile 233 42,683 33.3
China 118 1,649,804 Notes
Colombia 240 118,708 33.7
Comoros 23 191 29
Congo 27 1,240 60
Cook Islands (New Zealand) 229 48 14.6
Costa Rica 374 19,226 13.3
Ivory Coast 66 16,127 40.7
Croatia 78 3,190 24.5
Cuba 510 57,337
Curaçao (Netherlands) 236 377 41
Cyprus 83 710 33.7
Czech Republic 205 21,806 7.6
Democratic Republic of the Congo 29 20,550 73
Denmark 63 3,635 35.5
Djibouti 66 600 20
Dominica 289 211 23.7
Dominican Republic 238 26,286 60.3
Ecuador 222 37,497 34.9
Egypt 116 106,000 c. 9.9
El Salvador 604 38,714 29.5
Equatorial Guinea 63 500
Estonia 195 2,575 19.8
Ethiopia 127 113,727 14.9
Faroe Islands (Denmark) 12 6 26.8
Fiji 210 1,889 25.9
Finland 51 2,842 19.2
France 104 70,710 29.7
French Guiana (France) 249 726 25.9
French Polynesia (France) 199 569 14.4
Gabon 191 3,373 66.7
Gambia 58 1,121 22.2
Georgia 268 9,990 17.1
Germany 75 62,194 22.6
Ghana 51 15,063 13.8
Gibraltar (United Kingdom) 165 56 26.8
Greece 97 10,409 32.6
Greenland (Denmark) 249 139 32.5
Grenada 435 465 15.2
Guadeloupe (France) 216 970 26.9
Guam (United States) 404 667 45.1
Guatemala 141 24,386 51.8
Guernsey (United Kingdom) 165 109 16.5
Guinea 25 3,200 65
Guinea-Bissau 10 196 67.9
Guyana 283 2,200 35.6
Haiti 96 10,512 71.1
Honduras 216 18,950 53.1
Hong Kong (China) 112 8,306 23.5
Hungary 173 16,947 18.2
Iceland 37 131 17.6
India 33 419,623 67.2
Indonesia 93 248,389 28.6
Iran 284 230,000 25.1
Iraq 126 45,000 35.2
Ireland 78 3,816 19
Isle of Man (United Kingdom) 125 106 6.6
Israel 236 19,325 25.2
Italy 98 59,135 33.3
Jamaica 138 3,866 23.1
Japan 41 51,805 10.8
Jersey (United Kingdom) 122 130 26.4
Jordan 197 15,700 44.4
Kazakhstan 186 33,989 17
Kenya 108 54,000 48
Kiribati 113 129 5.4
Kosovo 95 1,648 18.1
Kuwait 157 6,000 10
Kyrgyzstan 171 10,574 18.4
Laos 119 8,201 1
Latvia 195 3,765 27.9
Lebanon 126 6,330 64.7
Lesotho 92 2,073 19.5
Liberia 47 2,211 63
Libya 99 6,187 90
Liechtenstein 27 10 37.5
Lithuania 235 6,544 8.8
Luxembourg 107 650 44.5
Macau (China) 208 1,371 18.6
Macedonia 141 2,931 8.5
Madagascar 82 20,954 50.8
Malawi 80 14,795 10.8
Malaysia 177 55,413 29.8
Maldives 499 1,852
Mali 33 5,209 52.8
Malta 133 588 26.5
Marshall Islands 66 35 11.4
Martinique (France) 211 814 27.3
Mauritania 46 1,920 42.4
Mauritius 194 2,499 41
Mayotte (France) 118 308 56.1
Mexico 164 204,422 39.4
F.S. Micronesia 127 132 16.7
Moldova 212 7,510 16.8
Monaco 76 29 59.4
Mongolia 102 3,099 23
Montenegro 180 1,123 28.4
Morocco 232 82,512 40.2
Mozambique 61 18,185 33.1
Myanmar 145 79,668 10.8
Namibia 295 7,400 c. 54
Nauru 140 14 25
Nepal 65 18,881 58.9
Netherlands 61 10,464 30
New Caledonia (France) 193 543 14.2
New Zealand 214 10,435 30.6
Nicaragua 276 17,196 21.4
Niger 53 10,383 59.8
Nigeria 37 73,631 68.1
Northern Mariana Islands (United States) 482 270
Norway 63 3,373 22.9
Oman 36 1,300 5.6
Pakistan 43 83,718 69.1
Palau 395 87 4.1
Panama 390 16,183 53
Papua New Guinea 63 4,945 38.3
Paraguay 199 13,607 77.9
Peru 270 87,995 39.8
Philippines 179 188,278 75.1
Poland 194 73,524 10.1
Portugal 127 13,065 16.3
Puerto Rico (United States) 313 10,475 13
Qatar 53 1,150 44
South Korea 109 55,198 34.5
Réunion (France) 130 1,148 14
Romania 111 21,527 8.3
Russia 402 582,889 17.5
Rwanda 464 61,000 6.8
Samoa 204 400 14
San Marino 3 0
São Tomé and Príncipe 117 251 33.5
Saudi Arabia 197 61,000 58.7
Senegal 76 12,500 42.1
Serbia 154 10,807 16.2
Seychelles 437 423 16.8
Sierra Leone 58 4,519 30.1
Singapore 201 11,691 11.5
Sint Maarten 153 62 18.1
Slovakia 191 10,415 15.6
Slovenia 64 1,333 23.3
Solomon Islands 78 477 48.2
South Africa 280 158,111 25.8
South Sudan 52 6,504 28.9
Spain 126 59,087 15
Sri Lanka 94 20,598 53.4
Saint Kitts and Nevis 393 220 30.5
Saint Lucia 280 527 53.5
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 426 469 24.3
Sudan 52 21,000 20.4
Suriname 183 1,000 50
Eswatini 282 3,610 18.1
Sweden 59 5,979 30.6
Switzerland 81 6,863 39.4
Syria 60 10,599 50.5
Taiwan 265 62,634 5.2
Tajikistan 121 9,317 15
Tanzania 58 31,382 53.1
Thailand 526 364,288 18.2
Timor-Leste 51 659 23.2
Togo 64 4,859 66.3
Tonga 166 176 7.4
Trinidad and Tobago 270 3,667 60.9
Tunisia 181 20,755 52
Turkey 288 232,886 43.1
Turkmenistan 552 30,452 14
Tuvalu 110 11 0
Uganda 129 54,059 51.6
Ukraine 157 56,246 34.2
United Arab Emirates 104 9,826 38.2
United Kingdom. England & Wales 140 83,014 11.2 Notes
Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) 76 1,435 30.4 Notes
Scotland (United Kingdom) 143 7,771 19.5 Notes
United States 655 2,121,600 21.6 Notes
Uruguay 321 11,078 69.7
Uzbekistan 150 43,900 10
Vanuatu 71 192 22.4
Venezuela 178 57,096 63
Vietnam 137 130,002 12.5
British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) 470 134 37
U.S. Virgin Islands (United States) 542 577 36.4
Yemen 53 14,000 70.1
Zambia 146 25,000 28
Zimbabwe 120 19,521 17.1
Notes
Return to top of table.
Australia
Further information: Immigration detention in Australia and Punishment in Australia
With a prison population of 42,000 and a total 2018 population of 25 million, Australia has an incarceration rate of 171 per 100,000 population, or 222 per 100,000 adult population.[2]
In addition to it's standard prisons, Australia also operates a separate system of immigration prisons to detain foreigners who have breached the terms of, or lack a visa.[3] Some of these immigration detention centres are used to indefinitely detain[4] asylum seekers and refugees, including children[5], often without trial, sometimes for several years.[6] Immigration detainees are not included in the data for prison population and incarceration rates.[7]
Additionally, the number of prisoners and incarceration rate differs for each Australian state and territory, with some having much higher or lower incarceration rates than the national average.
In addition to adult prisoners, on an average night in June 2017, there was 964 minors imprisoned in Australia.[8]
China
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)
China. The rate of 118 is for sentenced prisoners in 2015 in Ministry of Justice prisons only. World Prison Brief: "1,649,804 [prisoners] at mid-2015 (via Asian and Pacific Conference of Correctional Administrators - sentenced prisoners in Ministry of Justice prisons only, excluding pre-trial detainees and those held in administrative detention). The Deputy Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate reported in 2009 that, in addition to the sentenced prisoners, more than 650,000 were held in detention centres In China. If this was still correct in mid-2015 the total prison population in China was at least 2,300,000. ... 118 [rate] based on an estimated national population of 1.4 billion at mid-2015 (from United Nations figures) – sentenced prisoners in Ministry of Justice prisons only. (A total prison population of 2,300,000 would raise the prison population rate to 164 per 100,000.)"[1][9] See also: Re-education through labor and Laogai.
North Korea
North Korea. Little information exists regarding North Korea's incarceration rate. The U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea estimates 150,000 to 200,000 incarcerated based on testimony of defectors from the state police bureau, which roughly equals 600-800 people incarcerated per 100,000.[when?][10] For more info see Prisons in North Korea.
United Kingdom
United Kingdom. Main chart source only provides rates for the constituent parts of the UK.[1] In the above table see Scotland, Northern Ireland, and England and Wales. If they are not listed separately, then they can be found listed under the UK listing.
United States
Juveniles in residential
placement, 1997–2015. US[11]
Year Male Female Total
1997 90,771 14,284 105,055
1999 92,985 14,508 107,493
2001 89,115 15,104 104,219
2003 81,975 14,556 96,531
2006 78,998 13,723 92,721
2007 75,017 11,797 86,814
2010 61,359 9,434 70,793
2011 53,079 8,344 61,423
2013 46,421 7,727 54,148
2015 40,750 7,293 48,043
Further information: United States incarceration rate and Comparison of United States incarceration rate with other countries
United States. Incarceration rate (per 100,000 population of all ages) is for inmates held in adult facilities in the USA. It does not include inmates in the custody of correctional facilities operated by departments of corrections in U.S. territories (American Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) and U.S. commonwealths (Northern Mariana Islands and Puerto Rico).[12][13]
In addition, there were 48,043 juveniles in juvenile detention in 2015.[11] For more juvenile detention information and numbers, see Youth incarceration in the United States.
The incarceration rate in the US varies by U.S. state, with some such as Oklahoma and Louisiana, being around 1 and 2/3rds higher than the national average. See: List of U.S. states by incarceration and correctional supervision rate.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Incarceration rates and Criminal justice statistics.Тюрьма
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Запрос «тюрьма» перенаправляется сюда; см. также другие значения.
Зиндан. Бухара, 1915
Заключённый за решеткой
Тюрьма для несовершеннолетних в Германии
Блок клеток в Багдадской центральной тюрьме (Абу-Грейб, Ирак)
Тюрьма́ (по разным версиям от немецкого Turm — башня, тюркского türme или от тат. төрмә — темница)[1] — пенитенциарное (исправительное) учреждение: место, где люди содержатся в заключении и, как правило, лишены целого ряда личных свобод. Тюрьмы обычно являются частью системы уголовного правосудия, а лишение свободы путём заключения в тюрьме — юридическое наказание, которое может быть наложено государством за совершение преступления. Тюрьмой также часто называют учреждение, где подозреваемые и обвиняемые в совершении преступлений содержатся под стражей до суда. В большинстве случаев в разговорной русской речи под тюрьмой понимается любое учреждение для исполнения уголовных наказаний или для предварительного заключения (исправительная колония, следственный изолятор, изолятор временного содержания и другие).
Содержание
1 История
1.1 История российских тюрем
2 Международные стандарты содержания заключённых
3 Тюремные средства исправления преступников
3.1 Надзор
3.2 Дисциплинарные наказания
3.3 Образование
3.4 Арестантский труд
4 В современной России
4.1 Приватизация тюрем
5 Статистика заключённых по странам
6 В культуре
7 См. также
8 Примечания
9 Литература
10 Ссылки
История
Основная статья: История пенитенциарных учреждений со Средних веков до начала XX века
В качестве места заключения тюрьма существовала ещё в отдалённейшие века. В древности тюрьмы устраивались для содержания преступников, пленных и должников, как частных, так и государственных, а также и для усиления других наказаний и для приведения в исполнение различных казней.
В Древнем Риме с легендарных времен Сервия Туллия существовала подземная тюрьма Туллианум, в которой от заразных болезней погибло огромное количество христиан.
В Средние века широко практиковалось заключение пленных, должников, преступников и политически вредных лиц в монастырских кельях, в башнях крепостей и рыцарских замков, а также в городских ратушах. Печальную известность приобрели Тауэр в Лондоне, темница во дворце дожей в Венеции и подземелья Нюрнбергской ратуши.
Развившееся после Крестовых походов массовое нищенство послужило поводом к учреждению в Европе первых смирительных домов (нем. Zuchthaus). Подобный дом — House of correction был устроен в Лондоне в 1550 г.; затем в 1588 г. — в Амстердаме и специальный дом для помещения нищих детей в Нюрнберге; в 1613 г. — в Любеке, в 1615 г. — в Гамбурге и в 1682 г. в Мюнхене. Туда заключались не только бродяги, нищие, разного рода преступники, но и рабочие и слуги за леность и дерзкое поведение. Вследствие этого смирительные дома вскоре переполнились и превратились в очаги разврата и заразных болезней (тюремный тиф).
В том же ужасающем положении оставались почти все тюрьмы в течение XVIII века. Тюремные помещения были низки, узки, без достаточного света и воздуха. Женщины, мужчины, дети содержались вместе; пища давалась скудная, обыкновенно хлеб и вода; постелью служили связки гнилой соломы на земляном, пропитанном подпочвенной водой полу. Таковы были тюрьмы в Англии, по описанию Говарда, но то же представляли собой и тюрьмы в других государствах, как, например, парижская Бастилия.
Исключение составляли Нидерланды, где, благодаря более гуманным взглядам на наказание, тюрьмы отличались достаточным порядком, надзором и организацией работ. В 1775 г. была выстроена в Генте особая тюрьма (Maison de force), в которой заключённые работали днём вместе под строгим надзором, а ночью водворялись в отдельные камеры. Кроме ночного разобщения арестантов, имевшего целью охранение нравственности арестантов, в Генте впервые введена была и другая исправительная мера — распределение заключённых по их нравственным качествам на отдельные группы. Таким образом, гентская тюрьма была первой, в которой преследовались цели исправления преступников.
Затем исправление преступников стало рассматриваться как основная цель тюремного заключения и в других странах. При этом первоначально для этого в протестантских странах была испробована система тюрем особо строгого режима.
Американские квакеры задумали устроить тюрьму как место покаяния (penitentiary). С этой целью к старой тюрьме на Вальнут-Стрите они сделали в 1790 г. новую пристройку с 30 одиночными камерами. Это было началом одиночного заключения как особого типа тюрьмы. Но этот опыт продержался недолго в первоначальном виде — тюрьмы переполнились и одиночные камеры стали служить только ночными помещениями.
Так называемая Оборнская система (по названию города Оборн в штате Нью-Йорк) предполагала обязательное молчание заключённых и их разобщение на ночь. Заключённым запрещалось даже глядеть по сторонам и входить в сношения друг с другом при помощи знаков. Тюрьма в Оборне, рассчитанная на 550 заключённых, с таким же количеством отдельных келий для ночного разобщения, была окончательно устроена в 1820 г. Утром арестанты выпускались из камер и препровождались в общие мастерские. Там они работали под строгим надзором в полнейшем молчании, которое продолжалось и за обеденным столом, причём для уменьшения соблазна завести сношения с соседями все обедающие рассаживались лицом в одну сторону. В томительном, мрачном молчании проходил весь день; за всякое нарушение режима полагалось немедленное взыскание, заключавшееся в ударах плетью, которая находилась постоянно в руках надзирателей. Заключённые подвергались наказанию плетью не только за сказанное слово, но и за всякую рассеянность во время работы. Вечером арестанты разводились снова по камерам и стоя слушали вечернюю молитву, произносимую священником в коридоре. Выносить подобный режим могли только немногие, вследствие чего дисциплинарные наказания за несоблюдение молчания достигали ужасающей цифры. В США в самое непродолжительное время было выстроено до 13 тюрем этого типа и, между прочим, обширная тюрьма в Синг-Синге (Singsing) близ Нью-Йорка (в 1825 г.) с 1000 камер. Оборнская система быстро проникла также и в Европу, где она, правда, претерпела значительные смягчения.
В 1818 г. в штате Пенсильвания постановлено было построить одиночную тюрьму в Питсбурге, которая была закончена только в 1826 г. Система одиночного заключения была названа Пенсильванской системой. С первых же лет сказались преимущества одиночной тюрьмы: побегов стало меньше, заговоры и совместные протесты, а также развращение арестантов оказались невозможными. Но полное разъединение со всем обществом, запрещение переписки даже с родными доводило многих до сумасшествия; заболеваемость достигала высокой цифры; нравственное состояние заключённых было постоянно угнетённое; в них развивалось безучастное отношение ко всему существующему.
Прогрессивная, или ирландская, система, выработанная капитаном Крофтоном и введённая в Ирландии законом 7 августа 1854 г. (Irish prisons act) была направлена на социализацию преступника посредством возбуждения в нём стремления к самодеятельности и постепенного перевода его из разряда отверженных в среду полноправных граждан. Для этой цели долгосрочное наказание отбывалось по степеням (всего 4) с последовательным смягчением режима. Первую степень составляет одиночное заключение в течение 9 мес. (для женщин 4 месяца), причём 4 первых месяца арестант при самой тяжкой работе получал только вегетарианскую пищу, а затем уже переводится на смешанную пищу и более лёгкую работу. При хорошем поведении срок одиночного заключения мог быть сокращён на 1 месяц, а в обратном случае продлён на целый год. Вторая степень заключалась в совместной с другими арестантами дневной работе с разобщением на ночь и делилась на 5 классов: разряд испытуемых, в который поступают только арестанты, отличавшиеся дурным поведением в одиночном заключении, 3, 2 и 1 класс и, наконец, специальный класс. Во время пребывания в 3-м, 2-м и 1-м классе арестанту ежемесячно ставились отметки с выдачей марок отдельно за поведение, затем за учение и, наконец, за работу. В зависимости от их количества заключённые переводились в следующий класс. По прохождении всех 5 или последних 4-х классов заключённые переводились в так называемые intermediate prisons, то есть особые переходные тюрьмы, составлявшие третью степень наказания. В этих intermediate prisons тюремный режим почти совершенно отсутствовал, и заключённые не только получали увеличенную плату за свою работу, но и пользовались относительной свободой, так как их отпускали в церковь, за покупками и т. п. без сопровождения стражи. Время пребывания в переходных тюрьмах также сокращалось прогрессивно, в зависимости от зачтенного уже времени и продолжительности не отбытого ещё наказания. На весь остающийся затем по приговору срок арестанты переводились в четвертую степень, то есть они пользовались условным досрочным освобождением по отпускным билетам, которые, однако, за дурное поведение на свободе во всякое время могли быть отобраны с заключением провинившихся снова в тюрьмы. Эта система повлияла на гуманизацию тюремного заключения в Европе.
История российских тюрем
Впервые в России тюрьма как место отбывания наказания упоминается в Судебнике 1550 г. Он впервые определил тюремное заключение как основное и как дополнительное наказание. Тюрьма была наказанием за особо тяжкие преступления, предназначалась для тех, кто не признавал своей вины, и являлась также альтернативой смертной казни. В 1933 г. тюрьмы были переименованы в дома заключения. До 1963 г. тюрьмами назывались следственные изоляторы, где содержались подследственные, которым была избрана мера пресечения в виде заключения под стражу. Основным документом, регулирующим организацию тюрем в России, был Исправительно-трудовой кодекс РСФСР 1970 г., действовавший вплоть до 1997 г. Его заменил новый Уголовно-исполнительный кодекс Российской Федерации от 8 января 1997 г., который является основным документом, регулирующим деятельность пенитенциарных учреждений России[2].
Международные стандарты содержания заключённых
В 1955 году первым конгрессом ООН по предупреждению преступности и обращению с правонарушителями были приняты «Минимальные стандартные правила обращения с заключёнными». Этот документ носит рекомендательный характер.
Согласно ему, тюремный режим должен минимально отличаться от жизни на свободе, чтобы «не убивать в заключённых чувство ответственности и сознание человеческого достоинства». В тюрьмах должна быть запрещена любая дискриминация. Мужчины и женщины, подсудимые и осуждённые, несовершеннолетние и взрослые заключённые, впервые осуждённые и рецидивисты должны содержаться раздельно. Каждому заключённому полагается отдельная «камера или комната», а при содержании в общих камерах — отдельная койка. Освещение камер должно позволять читать и работать «без опасности для зрения», а их объём и вентиляция должны соответствовать санитарным нормам. Туалеты необходимо содержать в чистоте и заключённые должны иметь к ним беспрепятственный доступ. Осуждённым должна быть предоставлена возможность мыться минимум раз в неделю, мужчинам — регулярно бриться.
Питание должно быть регулярным и «достаточным для поддержания здоровья и сил», а вода — доступна в любой момент.
Заключённые должны иметь возможность регулярно лично общаться с родными и друзьями. Они должны иметь возможность узнавать новости из СМИ или «другими способами, контролируемыми администрацией», в каждой тюрьме должна быть библиотека.
Заключённые обязаны трудиться, но их труд не должен приносить страданий и его следует «справедливо оплачивать».
При применении дисциплинарных наказаний следует избегать жестокости, унижения человеческого достоинства, следует полностью исключить телесные наказания, помещение в «тёмные камеры», применение кандалов и цепей.
Во всех тюрьмах необходимо иметь штатного врача общей практики и заключённые должны получать профессиональную стоматологическую помощь.[3]
Странам-членам Совета Европы наряду с данным документом рекомендовано руководствоваться и европейскими пенитенциарными правилами. Они содержат дополнительные требования по сравнению с «Минимальными стандартными правилами обращения с заключёнными». Например, ванных и душевых должно быть достаточно для того, чтобы каждый заключённый мог пользоваться ими по возможности ежедневно, но не менее двух раз в неделю, тюремный рацион должен учитывать религиозные и культурные традиции отдельно взятого заключённого. Заключённым рекомендуется предоставлять отпуск, предполагающий возможность выхода на свободу.[4]
Тюремные средства исправления преступников
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Для достижения карательной и исправительной цели наказания тюрьмы располагают весьма разнообразными средствами исправления.
Надзор
Все моменты тюремной жизни арестантов: сон, работа, принятие пищи, отправление естественных нужд, свидания с родными — должны протекать на глазах тюремного начальства или стражи. Особая непрерывность надзора установлена в тех местах заключения, где введены совместные, общие работы или система обязательного молчания. Хотя в одиночных тюрьмах надзор за арестантами представляется более легким, тем не менее от служебного персонала требуется постоянное и сознательное наблюдение за всеми действиями и поведением каждого отдельного заключённого. Поэтому для подготовки необходимых кадров сведущих тюремных сторожей и надзирателей в последнее время возникла мысль о необходимости учреждения особых нормальных школ для тюремного персонала; такие школы существуют уже при лувэнской тюрьме в Бельгии и в Люнебург (Пруссия).
Дисциплинарные наказания
Состояли преимущественно в лишении нормальных удобств, которыми обыкновенно пользуются заключённые, но, кроме того, в некоторых государствах до сих пор применяются ещё телесные наказания. В английских convict-prisons арестанты подвергаются до 30 ударов «кошкой» (особого рода плеть); в тюрьмах некоторых германских государств ещё в 1880-х годах практиковалось наказание арестантов кнутом (Ochsenziemer) и палками, а кроме того, существовал и до начала XX века особый способ телесного истязания преступника, состоящий в заключении в так называемом Lattenkammer, то есть карцер, в котором пол (в Саксонии и стены) покрыт заострёнными брусьями, уложенными на близком расстоянии; во Франции сечение арестантов заменено более усовершенствованными способами физических мучений, как, например, «гоняние на корде» провинившихся ссыльных (сравните статью Ссылка). Против телесных наказаний энергично восстал пенитенциарный конгресс 1878 г. в Стокгольме, осудивший также и вредное для здоровья заключённых лишение пищи. III. Воспитательные цели — достигаются преимущественно при надлежащем нравственном воздействии на арестантов со стороны тюремного персонала, от которого зависит не только переход заключённых от самого сурового к менее тяжкому режиму, но и предоставление им разнообразных льгот, как, например, допущение более частых свиданий, бесконтрольной переписки, разрешение в одиночных камерах чтения книг, разведения цветов и тому подобного. Воспитательное воздействие на арестантов требуется, кроме того, от состоящего при тюрьме духовенства, которое обязано не только по возможности часто посещать арестантов, но и устраивать собеседования, в особенности в воскресные и праздничные дни, когда томящиеся в одиночном заключении узники проявляют особенную склонность к самоубийству.
Образование
Во всех лучших тюрьмах существуют школы, в которых арестанты либо в течение всего срока содержания, либо до достижения ими предельного возраста (от 30 до 60 лет в различных государствах) обучаются грамоте, арифметике и священной истории.
Арестантский труд
В современной тюрьме главнейшим рычагом для поднятия нравственного уровня преступников служит целесообразная организация тюремных работ. Арестантские работы существовали и в прежнее время, но они исключительно имели в виду либо соблюдение фискальных интересов (каторжная гребная работа на галерах), либо репрессивные задачи наказания (ничего не моловшие «ступальные» мельницы в Англии). В современной постановке арестантских работ, главным образом, преследуется цель исправления преступников посредством приучения их к систематическому и притом производительному труду. Отдельных видов допускаемых в тюрьме работ в настоящее время насчитывается до 100. Все они направлены не только к увеличению мускульных движений заключённых, но и к развитию в них стремления к самодеятельности и собственной инициативе. Главнейшие системы арестантских работ — подрядная и хозяйственная; первая из них — как противоречащая пенитенциарным задачам тюрьмы и влекущая за собой нежелательную эксплуатацию арестантов подрядчиками — постепенно выходит из употребления, а последняя — вследствие справедливых протестов свободных рабочих — все более приурочивается к таким условиям, при которых исключается возможность вредной в экономическом отношении конкуренции арестантского труда с трудом непреступного населения. Вопрос о тюремных заработках получил в отдельных странах различное разрешение; в Америке арестанты вообще не получают какого-либо вознаграждения за свой труд; в Пруссии и Англии они могут рассчитывать только на награды и пособия при освобождении; во Франции, где известная доля заработка поступает в пользу арестантов, выдаваемая им часть заработной платы находится в зависимости от тяжести отбываемого наказания и увеличивается по мере приближения срока освобождения (смотрите таблицу II). Несмотря на все перечисленные средства, современные тюрьмы далеко не достигают главной цели — социализации преступников; поэтому в последнее время получают распространение преследующие те же задачи субсидиарные институты: досрочное освобождение, условное осуждение и патронаты (смотрите). Главное управление тюрем в европейских государствах организовано весьма различно. В Англии все тюрьмы подчинены министерству внутренних дел, в составе которого имеется особый prison department, наблюдающий за местами заключения при посредстве своих директоров, комиссаров (commissioners) и тюремных инспекторов. Во Франции большинство тюрем находится в ведении министерства внутренних дел, а места заключений для лиц, приговорённых к ссылке, заведуются частью морским министром, частью министром колоний (в Алжире — генерал-губернатором). В Австрии в 1865 г. управление тюрьмами перешло в ведомство министерства юстиции; непосредственный надзор за местами заключения возложен на председателей и членов судов и на прокуроров судов 1-й и 2-й степени (Staatsanw älte, Oberstaatsanwä lte). В Баварии надзор и управление тюрьмами сосредоточено в руках прокуроров и старших участковых судей (Oberamtsrichter). Управление тюрьмами в Бельгии ещё в 1832 г. перешло в ведомство министерства юстиции; органами, посредствующими между центральной властью и отдельными дирекциями мест заключения, являются административные комиссии (commissions administratives), в состав которых входят королевский прокурор, военный аудитор, бургомистр и от 6 до 9 назначаемых королевской властью членов. Характерной особенностью прусского тюремного строя представляется издавна существующее двоевластие. Все смирительные дома (Zuchthaus), а также некоторые тюрьмы — всего 52 — подчинены министерству внутренних дел, а большая часть тюрем, числом около 1000 (987), находится в заведовании министра юстиции и управляются участковыми судьями (Amtsrichter) и прокурорами судов 1 степени (Landgericht).
В современной России
В Российской Федерации тюрьмы и иные места изоляции (кроме изоляторов временного содержания МВД и ФСБ) подведомственны Федеральной службе исполнения наказаний России (ФСИН) Министерства юстиции Российской Федерации.
В структуре ФСИН тюрьма — вид исправительного учреждения для отбывания уголовного наказания в виде лишения свободы. По состоянию на 01 декабря 2012 г. в ФСИН России функционирует 8 тюрем: во Владимирской (Владимирская тюрьма и туберкулёзная больница для приговорённых к содержанию в тюрьме в г. Покров)), Ульяновской (Димитровградская тюрьма), Челябинской (Верхнеуральская тюрьма), Липецкой (Елецкая тюрьма)), Саратовской (Балашовская тюрьма) областях и Красноярском крае (Енисейская тюрьма и Минусинская тюрьма) [5].
В соответствии с ч. 7 ст. 74 УИК РФ в тюрьмах содержатся:
Осуждённые за особо опасный рецидив преступления;
Осуждённые к лишению свободы на срок свыше пяти лет за совершение особо тяжких преступлений;
Осуждённые, являющиеся злостными нарушителями установленного порядка отбывания наказания (режима), переведённые из исправительных колоний.
Условия отбывания наказания отличны от других мест лишения свободы, поскольку осуждённые всё время содержатся в камерах, в отличие от исправительных и воспитательных колоний.
В тюрьмах есть карцер (от лат. carcer — темница, тюрьма) — специальная изолированная камера для нарушителей режима (не путать со штрафным изолятором (ШИЗО) или помещением камерного типа (ПКТ) в исправительных колониях).
Приватизация тюрем
28.02.13 на коллегии Федеральной службы исполнения наказания РФ с докладом «Об итогах деятельности уголовно-исполнительной системы в 2012 году, задачах на 2013 год и путях реализации второго этапа Концепции развития уголовно-исполнительной системы Российской Федерации до 2020 года» выступил директор ФСИН России Геннадий Корниенко. В своем выступлении глава ведомства, в частности, предложил подумать над созданием в России частных тюрем.
Статистика заключённых по странам
Основная статья: Список стран по количеству заключённых
Число заключённых на 100 000 граждан по странам, 2012
По некоторым оценкам, в 2006 году по всему миру в заключении содержалось по меньшей мере 9,25 млн человек[6]. Однако реальное число заключённых, возможно, гораздо выше, поскольку отсутствуют надёжные сведения из ряда стран, особенно с авторитарными политическими режимами.
В абсолютном значении Соединённые Штаты Америки в настоящее время лидируют по числу заключённых; в этой стране свыше 2,19 млн.[7], или более одного из каждых ста взрослых[8], находятся в заключении. Хотя население США составляет менее 5 % от мирового, порядка 20 % людей, находящихся за решёткой, приходится на американские тюрьмы.
Соединённые Штаты Америки также обладают первенством в удельном числе граждан, находящихся за решёткой: по состоянию на октябрь 2006 года 738 человек из каждых ста тысяч отбывали срок, были задержаны по подозрению в совершении преступления либо находились под стражей в ожидании суда[9]. Стоимость содержания заключённых различается в разных штатах США. В штате Нью-Йорк в 2010 году стоимость содержания одного заключённого в сутки составляла 210 долларов.[10]
В России в октябре 2006 года в тюрьмах было 869814 человек, или 611 заключённых на 100000 человек населения.[6] На 1 февраля 2014 года в учреждениях УИС (уголовно-исполнительной системы) содержалось 674,1 тысячи человек, 1859 человек отбывало пожизненный срок[11]
В культуре
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См. также
Заключённый
Пенитенциарная система
День работников СИЗО и тюрем
Тюремная азбука
Тюремная почта
Тюрьма для белых медведей
Стэнфордский тюремный эксперимент
Надзирать и наказывать Prison
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Prison (disambiguation).
"Calaboose" redirects here. For the 1943 film, see Calaboose (film).
"Gaol" redirects here. For the god in Iroquois mythology, see Gaol (god).
"Hoosegow" redirects here. For the Laurel and Hardy short film, see The Hoose-Gow.
"Jail" and "Penitentiary" redirect here. For other uses, see Jail (disambiguation) and Penitentiary (disambiguation).
Criminology
and penology
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Cell block in Baghdad Central Prison (Abu Ghraib, Iraq)
World map showing number of prisoners per 100,000 citizens, by country. The United States has both the world's largest prison population and the world's highest per capita incarceration rate.[1][2]
A prison,[a] also known as a correctional facility, jail,[b] gaol (dated, British and Australian English), penitentiary (American English), detention center[c] (American English), remand center[d], or internment facility (commonly used term in military theatres of war/involvement) is a facility in which inmates are forcibly confined and denied a variety of freedoms under the authority of the state. Prisons are most commonly used within a criminal justice system: people charged with crimes may be imprisoned until their trial; those pleading or being found guilty of crimes at trial may be sentenced to a specified period of imprisonment.
Prisons can also be used as a tool of political repression by authoritarian regimes. Their perceived opponents may be imprisoned for political crimes, often without trial or other legal due process; this use is illegal under most forms of international law governing fair administration of justice. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in military prisons or prisoner of war camps, and large groups of civilians might be imprisoned in internment camps.
In American English, prison and jail are usually treated as having separate definitions. The term prison or penitentiary tends to describe institutions that incarcerate people for longer periods of time, such as many years, and are operated by the state or federal governments. The term jail tends to describe institutions for confining people for shorter periods of time (e.g. for shorter sentences or pre-trial detention) and are usually operated by local governments.[4] Outside of North America, prison and jail have the same meaning.
Common slang terms for a prison include: "the pokey", "the slammer", "the clink", "the joint", "the calaboose", "the hoosegow" and "the big house". Slang terms for imprisonment include: "behind bars", "in stir" and "up the river" (a possible reference to Sing Sing).
Contents
1 History
1.1 Ancient and medieval
1.2 Modern era
1.2.1 Transportation, prison ships and penal colonies
1.2.2 Prison reform movement
1.2.3 Development of the modern prison
2 Design
2.1 Security
2.1.1 Inmate security classifications
2.2 Common facilities
2.2.1 Kitchen and dining
2.2.2 Healthcare
2.2.3 Library and educational facilities
2.2.4 Recreation and fitness
2.2.5 Control units
2.2.6 Other facilities
3 Special types
3.1 Youth detention facilities
3.2 Women's prisons
3.3 Military prisons and prisoner-of-war camps
3.4 Political prisons and administrative detention
3.5 Psychiatric facilities
4 Prison population
5 Economics of the prison industry
6 Social effects
6.1 Internal
6.2 External
7 Theories of punishment and criminality
7.1 Evaluation
8 Alternatives
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History
Ancient and medieval
The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization. Corresponding with the advent of the state was the development of written language, which enabled the creation of formalized legal codes as official guidelines for society. The best known of these early legal codes is the Code of Hammurabi, written in Babylon around 1750 BC. The penalties for violations of the laws in Hammurabi's Code were almost exclusively centered on the concept of lex talionis ("the law of retaliation"), whereby people were punished as a form of vengeance, often by the victims themselves. This notion of punishment as vengeance or retaliation can also be found in many other legal codes from early civilizations, including the ancient Sumerian codes, the Indian Manama Dharma Astra, the Hermes Trismegistus of Egypt, and the Israelite Mosaic Law.[5]
A common punishment in Early Modern Europe was to be made a galley slave. The galley pictured here belonged to the Mediterranean fleet of Louis XIV, c. 1694.
Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform offenders instead of simply using it as retribution. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines. Eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead.[6] The prison in Ancient Athens was known as the desmoterion ("place of chains").[7]
The Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment, rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as metal cages, basements of public buildings, and quarries. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, established around 640 B.C. by Ancus Marcius. The Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions,[8] contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public works projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula (a primitive form of prison where unruly slaves were chained to workbenches and performed hard labor).[citation needed]
During the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. The possession of the right and the capability to imprison citizens, however, granted an air of legitimacy to officials at all levels of government, from kings to regional courts to city councils; and the ability to have someone imprisoned or killed served as a signifier of who in society possessed power or authority over others.[9] Another common punishment was sentencing people to galley slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships and forcing them to row on naval or merchant vessels.
Modern era
See also: Castellania (Valletta)
From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution and torture became more widespread both in Europe and in the United States. Particularly under the Bloody Code, with few sentencing alternatives, imposition of the death penalty for petty crimes, such as theft, was proving increasingly unpopular with the public; many jurors were refusing to convict defendants of petty crimes when they knew the defendants would be sentenced to death. Rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, as a solution.[10][11][12] The prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies. The first was based in Enlightenment ideas of utilitarianism and rationalism, and suggested that prisons should simply be used as a more effective substitute for public corporal punishments such as whipping, hanging, etc. This theory, referred to as deterrence, claims that the primary purpose of prisons is to be so harsh and terrifying that they deter people from committing crimes out of fear of going to prison. The second theory, which saw prisons as a form of rehabilitation or moral reform, was based on religious ideas that equated crime with sin, and saw prisons as a place to instruct prisoners in Christian morality, obedience and proper behavior. These later reformers believed that prisons could be constructed as humane institutions of moral instruction, and that prisoners' behavior could be "corrected" so that when they were released, they would be model members of society.[13]
The concept of the modern prison largely remained unknown until the early 19th-century. Punishment usually consisted of physical forms of punishment, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation (whipping), branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals (like the stocks).[14] From the Middle Ages up to the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, imprisonment was rarely used as a punishment in its own right, and prisons were mainly to hold those awaiting trial and convicts awaiting punishment.
However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London, which resulted in the building of other houses of correction. These houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities, inmates were given jobs, and through prison labor they were taught how to work for a living. By the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace.[10]
Transportation, prison ships and penal colonies
Women in Plymouth, England (Black-eyed Sue and Sweet Poll) mourning their lovers who are soon to be transported to Botany Bay (1792).
England used penal transportation of convicted criminals (and others generally young and poor) for a term of indentured servitude within the general population of British America between the 1610s and 1776. The Transportation Act 1717 made this option available for lesser crimes, or offered it by discretion as a longer-term alternative to the death penalty, which could theoretically be imposed for the growing number of offenses. The substantial expansion of transportation was the first major innovation in eighteenth-century British penal practice.[15] Transportation to America was abruptly suspended by the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo. 3 c.43)[16][17] with the start of the American Rebellion. While sentencing to transportation continued, the act instituted a punishment policy of hard labour instead. The suspension of transport also prompted the use of prisons for punishment and the initial start of a prison building program.[18] Britain would resume transportation to specifically planned penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868.[e]
The beached convict ship HMS Discovery at Deptford served as a convict hulk between 1818 and 1834.
Gaols at the time were run as business ventures, and contained both felons and debtors; the latter were often housed with their wives and younger children. The gaolers made their money by charging the inmates for food, drink, and other services, and the system was generally corruptible.[19] One reform of the seventeenth century was the establishment of the London Bridewell as a house of correction for women and children. It was the first facility to make any medical services available to prisoners.
With the widely used alternative of penal transportation halted in the 1770s, the immediate need for additional penal accommodations emerged. Given the undeveloped institutional facilities, old sailing vessels, termed hulks, were the most readily available and expandable choice to be used as places of temporary confinement.[20] While conditions on these ships were generally appalling, their use and the labor thus provided set a precedent which persuaded many people that mass incarceration and labour were viable methods of crime prevention and punishment. The turn of the 19th century would see the first movement toward Prison reform, and by the 1810s, the first state prisons and correctional facilities were built, thereby inaugurating the modern prison facilities available today.
France also sent criminals to overseas penal colonies, including Louisiana, in the early 18th century.[21] Penal colonies in French Guiana operated until 1952, such as the notable Devil's Island (Île du Diable). Katorga prisons were harsh work camps established in the 17th century in Russia, in remote underpopulated areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East, that had few towns or food sources. Siberia quickly gained its fearful connotation of punishment.[22]
Prison reform movement
Jeremy Bentham's "panopticon" prison introduced many of the principles of surveillance and social control that underpin the design of the modern prison. In the panopticon model, prisoners were housed in one-person cells arranged in a circular pattern, all facing towards a central observation tower in such a way that the guards could see into all of the cells from the observation tower, while the prisoners were unable to see the guards.[23][24][f] (Architectural drawing by Willey Reveley, 1791)
John Howard was one of the most notable early prison reformers.[g] After having visited several hundred prisons across England and Europe, in his capacity as high sheriff of Bedfordshire, he published The State of the Prisons in 1777.[25] He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they couldn't pay the gaoler's fees. He proposed wide-ranging reforms to the system, including the housing of each prisoner in a separate cell; the requirements that staff should be professional and paid by the government, that outside inspection of prisons should be imposed, and that prisoners should be provided with a healthy diet and reasonable living conditions. The prison reform charity, the Howard League for Penal Reform, was established in 1866 by his admirers.[26]
Following Howard's agitation, the Penitentiary Act was passed in 1779. This introduced solitary confinement, religious instruction, a labor regime, and proposed two state penitentiaries (one for men and one for women). However, these were never built due to disagreements in the committee and pressures from wars with France, and gaols remained a local responsibility. But other measures passed in the next few years provided magistrates with the powers to implement many of these reforms, and eventually, in 1815, gaol fees were abolished.[citation needed]
Quakers were prominent in campaigning against and publicizing the dire state of the prisons at the time. Elizabeth Fry documented the conditions that prevailed at Newgate prison, where the ladies' section was overcrowded with women and children, some of whom had not even received a trial. The inmates did their own cooking and washing in the small cells in which they slept on straw. In 1816, Fry was able to found a prison school for the children who were imprisoned with their parents. She also began a system of supervision and required the women to sew and to read the Bible. In 1817, she helped found the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate.
Development of the modern prison
The theory of the modern prison system was born in London, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. Bentham's panopticon introduced the principle of observation and control that underpins the design of the modern prison. The notion of prisoners being incarcerated as part of their punishment and not simply as a holding state until trial or hanging, was at the time revolutionary. His views influenced the establishment of the first prisons used as criminal rehabilitation centers. At a time when the implementation of capital punishment for a variety of relatively trivial offences was on the decline, the notion of incarceration as a form of punishment and correction held great appeal to reform-minded thinkers and politicians.
In the first half of the 19th century, capital punishment came to be regarded as inappropriate for many crimes that it had previously been carried out for, and by the mid-19th century, imprisonment had replaced the death penalty for the most serious offenses except for murder.[10]
The first state prison in England was the Millbank Prison, established in 1816 with a capacity for just under 1000 inmates. By 1824, 54 prisons had adopted the disciplinary system advocated by the SIPD.[27] By the 1840s, penal transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was on the decline, and the Surveyor-General of convict prisons, Joshua Jebb, set an ambitious program of prison building in the country, with one large prison opening per year. Pentonville prison opened in 1842, beginning a trend of ever increasing incarceration rates and the use of prison as the primary form of crime punishment.[28] Robert Peel's Gaols Act of 1823 introduced regular visits to prisoners by chaplains, provided for the payment of gaolers and prohibited the use of irons and manacles.
An 1855 engraving of New York's Sing Sing Penitentiary, which also followed the "Auburn (or Congregate) System.", where prison cells were placed inside of rectangular buildings that lent themselves more to large-scale penal labor.
In 1786, the state of Pennsylvania passed a law which mandated that all convicts who had not been sentenced to death would be placed in penal servitude to do public works projects such as building roads, forts, and mines. Besides the economic benefits of providing a free source of hard labor, the proponents of the new penal code also thought that this would deter criminal activity by making a conspicuous public example of consequences of breaking the law. However, what actually ended up happening was frequent spectacles of disorderly conduct by the convict work crews, and the generation of sympathetic feelings from the citizens who witnessed the mistreatment of the convicts. The laws quickly drew criticism from a humanitarian perspective (as cruel, exploitative and degrading) and from a utilitarian perspective (as failing to deter crime and delegitimizing the state in the eyes of the public). Reformers such as Benjamin Rush came up with a solution that would enable the continued used of forced labor, while keeping disorderly conduct and abuse out of the eyes of the public. They suggested that prisoners be sent to secluded "houses of repentance" where they would be subjected (out of the view of the public) to "bodily pain, labour, watchfulness, solitude, and silence ... joined with cleanliness and a simple diet".[29][h]
Pennsylvania soon put this theory into practice, and turned its old jail at Walnut Street in Philadelphia into a state prison, in 1790. This prison was modeled on what became known as the "Pennsylvania system" (or "separate system"), and placed all prisoners into solitary cells with nothing other than religious literature, and forced them to be completely silent to reflect on their wrongs.[30] New York soon built the Newgate state prison in Greenwich Village, which was modeled on the Pennsylvania system,[31] and other states followed.
Prisoners picking oakum at Coldbath Fields Prison in London, c. 1864.
But by 1820 faith in the efficacy of legal reform had declined as statutory changes had no discernible effect on the level of crime, and the prisons, where prisoners shared large rooms and booty including alcohol, had become riotous and prone to escapes.[citation needed] In response, New York developed the Auburn system in which prisoners were confined in separate cells and prohibited from talking when eating and working together, implementing it at Auburn State Prison and Sing Sing at Ossining. The aim of this was rehabilitative: the reformers talked about the penitentiary serving as a model for the family and the school and almost all the states adopted the plan (though Pennsylvania went even further in separating prisoners). The system's fame spread and visitors to the U.S. to see the prisons included de Tocqueville who wrote Democracy in America as a result of his visit.[32]
The use of prisons in Continental Europe was never as popular as it became in the English-speaking world, although state prison systems were largely in place by the end of the 19th century in most European countries. After the unification of Italy in 1861, the government reformed the repressive and arbitrary prison system they inherited, and modernized and secularized criminal punishment by emphasizing discipline and deterrence.[33] Italy developed an advanced penology under the leadership of Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909).[34]
Another prominent prison reformer who made important contributions was Alexander Paterson[35] who advocated for the necessity of humanising and socialising methods within the prison system in Great Britain and America.[36]
Design
Shita (Shata) Prison in Israel. Many modern prisons are surrounded by a perimeter of high walls, razor wire or barbed wire, motion sensors and guard towers in order to prevent prisoners from escaping.
Security
See also: Physical security
Prisons are normally surrounded by fencing, walls, earthworks, geographical features, or other barriers to prevent escape. Multiple barriers, concertina wire, electrified fencing, secured and defensible main gates, armed guard towers, security lighting, motion sensors, dogs and roving patrols may all also be present depending on the level of security.[37][38]
Remotely controlled doors, CCTV monitoring, alarms, cages, restraints, nonlethal and lethal weapons, riot-control gear and physical segregation of units and prisoners may all also be present within a prison to monitor and control the movement and activity of prisoners within the facility.[i]
Design of a cell at ADX Florence.
Modern prison designs have increasingly sought to restrict and control the movement of prisoners throughout the facility and also to allow a smaller prison staff to monitor prisoners directly; often using a decentralized "podular" layout.[39][40] (In comparison, 19th-century prisons had large landings and cell blocks which permitted only intermittent observation of prisoners.) Smaller, separate and self-contained housing units known as "pods" or "modules" are designed to hold 16 to 50 prisoners and are arranged around exercise yards or support facilities in a decentralized "campus" pattern. A small number of prison officers, sometimes a single officer, supervise each pod. The pods contain tiers of cells arranged around a central control station or desk from which a single officer can monitor all the cells and the entire pod, control cell doors and communicate with the rest of the prison.[citation needed]
Pods may be designed for high-security "indirect supervision", in which officers in segregated and sealed control booths monitor smaller numbers of prisoners confined to their cells. An alternative is "direct supervision", in which officers work within the pod and directly interact with and supervise prisoners, who may spend the day outside their cells in a central "dayroom" on the floor of the pod. Movement in or out of the pod to and from exercise yards, work assignments or medical appointments can be restricted to individual pods at designated times and is generally centrally controlled. Goods and services, such as meals, laundry, commissary, educational materials, religious services and medical care can increasingly be brought to individual pods or cells as well.[41] Some modern prisons may exclude certain inmates from the general population, usually for safety reasons, such as those within solitary confinement, celebrities, political figures and former law enforcement officers, those convicted of sexual crimes and/or crimes against children, or those on the medical wing or protective custody.[42]
Inmate security classifications
ADX Florence is presently the only facility housing supermax units operating in the Federal Bureau of Prisons.
A maximum security prison, the Clinton Correctional Facility, in Dannemorra, New York.
Inmate in striped uniform and restraints
Generally, when an inmate arrives at a prison, they go through a security classification screening and risk assessment that determines where they will be placed within the prison system. Classifications are assigned by assessing the prisoner's personal history and criminal record, and through subjective determinations made by intake personnel (which include mental health workers, counselors, prison unit managers, and others). This process will have a major impact on the prisoner's experience, determining their security level, educational and work programs, mental health status (e.g. will they be placed in a mental health unit), and many other factors. This sorting of prisoners is one of the fundamental techniques through which the prison administration maintains control over the inmate population, and creates an orderly and secure prison environment.[43][44][45] At most prisons, prisoners are made to wear a prison uniform.
The levels of security within a prison system are categorized differently around the world, but tend to follow a distinct pattern. At one end of the spectrum are the most secure facilities ("maximum security"), which typically hold prisoners that are considered dangerous, disruptive or likely to try to escape. Furthermore, in recent times, supermax prisons have been created where the custody level goes beyond maximum security for people such as terrorists or political prisoners deemed a threat to national security, and inmates from other prisons who have a history of violent or other disruptive behavior in prison or are suspected of gang affiliation. These inmates have individual cells and are kept in lockdown, often for more than 23 hours per day. Meals are served through "chuck-holes" in the cell door, and each inmate is allotted one hour of outdoor exercise per day, alone. They are normally permitted no contact with other inmates and are under constant surveillance via closed-circuit television cameras.[46]
A minimum security prison in the US.
On the other end are "minimum security" prisons which are most often used to house those for whom more stringent security is deemed unnecessary. For example, while white-collar crime rarely results in incarceration, when it does offenders are almost always sent to minimum-security prisons due to them having committed nonviolent crimes.[47] Lower-security prisons are often designed with less restrictive features, confining prisoners at night in smaller locked dormitories or even cottage or cabin-like housing while permitting them free movement around the grounds to work or activities during the day. Some countries (such as Britain) also have "open" prisons where prisoners are allowed home-leave or part-time employment outside of the prison. Suomenlinna Island facility in Finland is an example of one such "open" correctional facility. The prison has been open since 1971 and, as of September 2013, the facility's 95 male prisoners leave the prison grounds on a daily basis to work in the corresponding township or commute to the mainland for either work or study. Prisoners can rent flat-screen televisions, sound systems, and mini-refrigerators with the prison-labor wages that they can earn—wages range between 4.10 and €7.30 per hour. With electronic monitoring, prisoners are also allowed to visit their families in Helsinki and eat together with the prison staff. Prisoners in Scandinavian facilities are permitted to wear their own clothes.[48]
Common facilities
The crowded living quarters of San Quentin Prison in California, in January 2006. As a result of overcrowding in the California state prison system, the United States Supreme Court ordered California to reduce its prison population (the second largest in the nation, after Texas).
Modern prisons often hold hundreds or thousands of inmates, and must have facilities onsite to meet most of their needs, including dietary, health, fitness, education, religious practices, entertainment, and many others. Conditions in prisons vary widely around the world, and the types of facilities within prisons depend on many intersecting factors including funding, legal requirements, and cultural beliefs/practices. Nevertheless, in addition to the cell blocks that contain the prisoners, also there are certain auxiliary facilities that are common in prisons throughout the world.
Kitchen and dining
See also: Prison food
Prisons generally have to provide food for a large number of individuals, and thus are generally equipped with a large institutional kitchen. There are many security considerations, however, that are unique to the prison dining environment. For instance, cutlery equipment must be very carefully monitored and accounted for at all times, and the layout of prison kitchens must be designed in a way that allows staff to observe activity of the kitchen staff (who are usually prisoners). The quality of kitchen equipment varies from prison to prison, depending on when the prison was constructed, and the level of funding available to procure new equipment. Prisoners are often served food in a large cafeteria with rows of tables and benches that are securely attached to the floor. However, inmates that are locked in control units, or prisons that are on "lockdown" (where prisoners are made to remain in their cells all day) have trays of food brought to their cells and served through "chuck-holes" in the cell door.[49] It is said that prison food of many developed countries is adequate to maintain health and dieting.[50][unreliable source?]
Healthcare
Further information: Correctional medicine and Incarceration of women in the United States § Healthcare
Prisons in wealthy, industrialized nations provide medical care for most of their inmates. Additionally, prison medical staff play a major role in monitoring, organizing, and controlling the prison population through the use of psychiatric evaluations and interventions (psychiatric drugs, isolation in mental health units, etc.). Prison populations are largely from poor minority communities that experience greater rates of chronic illness, substance abuse, and mental illness than the general population. This leads to a high demand for medical services, and in countries such as the US that don't provide tax-payer funded healthcare, prison is often the first place that people are able to receive medical treatment (which they couldn't afford outside).[51][52][53]
Prison medical facilities include primary care, mental health services, dental care, substance abuse treatment, and other forms of specialized care, depending on the needs of the inmate population. Health care services in many prisons have long been criticized as inadequate, underfunded, and understaffed, and many prisoners have experienced abuse and mistreatment at the hands of prison medical staff who are entrusted with their care.[51][53][54]
In the United States, a million people who are incarcerated suffer from mental illness without any assistance or treatment for their condition and the tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend, known as the rate of recidivism, is unusually high for those with the most serious disorders.[55] Analysis of data in 2000 from several forensic hospitals in California, New York and Oregon found that with treatment the rate of recidivism was "much lower" than untreated mentally ill offenders.[55]
Library and educational facilities
Main article: Prison education
Inmate teacher teaching other inmates in Kenya
Some prisons provide educational programs for inmates that can include basic literacy, secondary education, or even college education. Prisoners seek education for a variety of reasons, including the development of skills for after release, personal enrichment and curiosity, finding something to fill their time, or trying to please prison staff (which can often secure early release for good behavior). However, the educational needs of prisoners often come into conflict with the security concerns of prison staff and with a public that wants to be "tough on crime" (and thus supports denying prisoners access to education). Whatever their reasons for participating in educational programs, prison populations tend to have very low literacy rates and lack of basic mathematical skills, and many have not completed secondary education. This lack of basic education severely limits their employment opportunities outside of prison, leading to high rates of recidivism, and research has shown that prison education can play a significant role in helping prisoners reorient their lives and become successful after reentry.[56][57]
Many prisons also provide a library where prisoners can check out books, or do legal research for their cases.[j] Often these libraries are very small, consisting of a few shelves of books. In some countries, such as the United States, drastic budget cuts have resulted in many prison libraries being shut down. Meanwhile, many nations that have historically lacked prison libraries are starting to develop them.[58] Prison libraries can dramatically improve the quality of life for prisoners, who have large amounts of empty time on their hands that can be occupied with reading. This time spent reading has a variety of benefits including improved literacy, ability to understand rules and regulations (leading to improved behavior), ability to read books that encourage self-reflection and analysis of one's emotional state, consciousness of important real-world events, and education that can lead to successful re-entry into society after release.[59][60]
Recreation and fitness
Many prisons provide limited recreational and fitness facilities for prisoners. The provision of these services is controversial, with certain elements of society claiming that prisons are being "soft" on inmates, and others claiming that it is cruel and dehumanizing to confine people for years without any recreational opportunities. The tension between these two opinions, coupled with lack of funding, leads to a large variety of different recreational procedures at different prisons. Prison administrators, however, generally find the provision of recreational opportunities to be useful at maintaining order in the prisons, because it keeps prisoners occupied and provides leverage to gain compliance (by depriving prisoners of recreation as punishment). Examples of common facilities/programs that are available in some prisons are: gyms and weightlifting rooms, arts and crafts, games (such as cards, chess, or bingo), television sets, and sports teams.[61] Additionally, many prisons have an outdoor recreation area, commonly referred to as an "exercise yard".
Control units
Most prisoners are part of the "general population" of the prison, members of which are generally able to socialize with each other in common areas of the prison.[62] A control unit or segregation unit (also called a "block" or "isolation cell") is a highly secure area of the prison, where inmates are placed in solitary confinement to isolate them from the general population.[63] Other prisoners that are often segregated from the general population include those who are in protective custody, or who are on suicide watch, and those whose behavior presents a threat to other prisoners.
Other facilities
In countries where capital punishment is practiced, such as the United States, some prisons are equipped with a "death row", where prisoners are held prior to their executions, as well as an execution chamber, where they are put to death under controlled conditions. Pictured here is the lethal injection room at San Quentin Prison, c. 2010.
In addition to the above facilities, others that are common include prison factories and workshops, visiting areas, mail rooms, telephone and computer rooms, a prison store (often called a "canteen") where prisoners can purchase goods, and a death row where prisoners who have been sentenced to death await execution.
Special types
Youth detention facilities
Juvenile prison in Germany
Main article: Youth detention center
Prisons for juveniles are known by a variety of names, including "youth detention facilities", "juvenile detention centers", and "reformatories". The purpose of youth detention facilities is to keep young offenders away from the public, while working towards rehabilitation.[64]The idea of separately treating youthful and adult offenders is a relatively modern idea. The earliest known use of the term "juvenile delinquency" was in London in 1816, from where it quickly spread to the United States. The first juvenile correctional institution in the United States opened in 1825 in New York City. By 1917, juvenile courts had been established in all but 3 states.[65] It was estimated that in 2011 more than 95,000 juveniles were locked up in prisons and jails in the United States (the largest youth prisoner population in the world).[66] Besides prisons, many other types of residential placement exist within juvenile justice systems, including youth homes, community-based programs, training schools and boot camps.[65]
Like adult facilities, youth detention centers in some countries are experiencing overcrowding due to large increases in incarceration rates of young offenders. Crowding can create extremely dangerous environments in juvenile detention centers and juvenile correctional facilities. Overcrowding may also lead to the decrease in availability to provide the youth with much needed and promised programs and services while they are in the facility. Many times the administration is not prepared to handle the large number of residents and therefore the facilities can become unstable and create instability in simple logistics.[67]
In addition to overcrowding, juvenile prisons are questioned for their overall effectiveness in rehabilitating youth. Many critics note high juvenile recidivism rates, and the fact that the most of the youths that are incarcerated are those from lower socio-economic classes (who often suffer from broken families, lack of educational/job opportunities, and violence in their communities).[65][67]
Women's prisons
Main article: Incarceration of women
Mercer Reformatory (Toronto, Canada), which opened in 1874 and was Canada's first dedicated prison for women. The reformatory was closed in 1969 due to an abuse scandal.
In the 19th century, a growing awareness that female prisoners had different needs to male prisoners led to the establishment of dedicated prisons for women.[68] In modern times, it is the norm for female inmates to be housed in either a separate prison or a separate wing of a unisex prison. The aim is to protect them from physical and sexual abuse that would otherwise occur.
In the Western world, the guards of women's prisons are usually female, though not always.[69][70] For example, in federal women’s correction facilities of the United States, 70% of guards are male.[71] Rape and sexual offences remain commonplace in many women's prisons, and are usually underreported.[72] Two studies in the late 2000s noted that as a high proportion of female inmates have experienced sexual abuse in the past, they are particularly vulnerable to further abuse.[73][74]
The needs of mothers during pregnancy and childbirth often conflict with the demands of the prison system. The Rebecca Project, a non-profit organization that campaigns for women's rights issues, reports that "In 2007, the Bureau of Justice Statistics stated that, on average, 5% of women who enter into state prisons are pregnant and in jails [local prisons] 6% of women are pregnant".[75] The standard of care that female prisoners receive before and after giving birth is often far worse than the standard expected by the general population, and sometimes almost none is given.[75] In other countries such as the United Kingdom, it is no longer compulsory for female prisoners to be restrained while giving birth.[76]
Military prisons and prisoner-of-war camps
Captives at Camp X-Ray, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, a United States military prison where people are being indefinitely detained in solitary confinement as part of the "War on Terror" (January 2002). The prisoners are forced to wear goggles and headphones for sensory deprivation and to prevent them from communicating with other prisoners.
Main articles: Military prison, Prisoner-of-war camp, and American Civil War prison camps
Prisons have formed parts of military systems since the French Revolution. France set up its system in 1796. They were modernized in 1852 and since their existence, are used variously to house prisoners of war, unlawful combatants, those whose freedom is deemed a national security risk by military or civilian authorities, and members of the military found guilty of a serious crime. Military prisons in the United States have also been converted to civilian prisons, to include Alcatraz Island. Alcatraz was formerly a military prison for soldiers during the American Civil War.[citation needed]
In the American Revolution, British prisoners held by the U.S. were assigned to local farmers as laborers. The British kept American sailors in broken down ship hulks with high death rates.[citation needed]
In the Napoleonic wars, the broken down hulks were still in use for naval prisoners. One French surgeon recalled his captivity in Spain, where scurvy, diarrhea, dysentery, and typhus abounded, and prisoners died by the thousands:
"These great trunks of ships were immense coffins, in which living men were consigned to a slow death.... [In the hot weather we had] black army bread full of gritty particles, biscuit full of maggots, salt meat that was already decomposing, rancid lard, spoiled cod, [and] stale rice, peas, and beans."[77]
In the American Civil War, at first prisoners of war were released, after they promised not to fight again unless formally exchanged. When the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners the system broke down, and each side built large-scale POW camps. Conditions in terms of housing, food, and medical care were bad in the Confederacy, and the Union retaliated by imposing harsh conditions.[78]
By 1900 the legal framework of the Geneva and Hague Convention provided considerable protection. In the First World War, millions of prisoners were held on both sides, with no major atrocities. Officers received privileged treatment. There was an increase in the use of forced labor throughout Europe. Food and medical treatment were generally comparable to what active duty soldiers received, and housing was much better than front-line conditions.[79]
Political prisons and administrative detention
Main articles: Political prisoner and Administrative detention
Political prisoners are people who have been imprisoned because of their political beliefs, activities and affiliations. There is much debate about who qualifies as a "political prisoner". The category of "political prisoner" is often contested, and many regimes that incarcerate political prisoners often claim that they are merely "criminals". Others who are sometimes classified as "political prisoners" include prisoners who were politicized in prison, and are subsequently punished for their involvement with political causes.[80][81][k]
Many countries maintain or have in the past had a system of prisons specifically intended for political prisoners. In some countries, dissidents can be detained, tortured, executed, and/or "disappeared" without trial. This can happen either legally, or extralegally (sometimes by falsely accusing people and fabricating evidence against them).[82]
Administrative detention is a classification of prisons or detention centers where people are held without trial.
Psychiatric facilities
Main article: Psychiatric hospital
Some psychiatric facilities have characteristics of prisons, particularly when confining patients who have committed a crime and are considered dangerous.[83] In addition, many prisons have psychiatric units dedicated to housing offenders diagnosed with a wide variety of mental disorders. The United States government refers to psychiatric prisons as "Federal Medical Centers (FMC)".
Prison population
A graph showing the incarceration rate per 100,000 population in the United States. The rapid rise in the rate of imprisonment in the United States came in response to the declaration of a War on Drugs: nearly half of those incarcerated in the United States are sentenced to prison for violating drug prohibition laws.
See also: List of countries by incarceration rate
Some jurisdictions refer to the prison population (total or per-prison) as the prison muster.[84]
In 2010, the International Centre for Prison Studies that at least 10.1 million people were imprisoned worldwide.[85]
As of 2012 the United States of America had the world's largest prison population, with over 2.3 million people in American prisons or jails—up from 744,000 in 1985—making 1 in every 100 American adults a prisoner. That same year it was also reported that the United States government spent an estimated US$37 billion to maintain prisons.[86] CNBC estimated that the cost of maintaining the US prison system was US$74 billion per year.[87][l] The United States still has one of, if not the world's largest prison population. This increases government spending on prisons/putting people in jail. [88]
Not all countries have experienced a rise in prison population; Sweden closed four prisons in 2013 due to a significant drop in the number of inmates. The head of Sweden's prison and probation services characterised the decrease in the number of Swedish prisoners as "out-of-the-ordinary", with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1% a year since 2004.[89]
Economics of the prison industry
Main articles: Penal labor, Private prisons, and Prison-industrial complex
In the United States alone, more than $74 billion per year is spent on prisons, with over 800,000 people employed in the prison industry.[90] As the prison population grows, revenues increase for a variety of small and large businesses that construct facilities, and provide equipment (security systems, furniture, clothing), and services (transportation, communications, healthcare, food) for prisons. These parties have a strong interest in the expansion of the prison system since their development and prosperity directly depends on the number of inmates.[91][92]
The prison industry also includes private businesses that benefit from the exploitation of the prison labor.[93][94] Some scholars, using the term prison-industrial complex, have argued that the trend of "hiring out prisoners" is a continuation of the slavery tradition, pointing out that the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution freed slaves but allowed forced labor for people convicted of crimes.[95][96] Prisons are very attractive to employers, because prisoners can be made to perform a great array of jobs, under conditions that most free laborers wouldn't accept (and would be illegal outside of prisons): sub-minimum wage payments, no insurance, no collective bargaining, lack of alternative options, etc.[97] Prison labor can soon deprive the free labor of jobs in a number of sectors, since the organized labor turns out to be uncompetitive compared to the prison counterpart.[97][98][99]
Social effects
Internal
Memorial to the prison staff who died in the 1971 riot at Attica Correctional Facility.
Prisons can be difficult places to live and work in, even in developed countries in the present day. By their very definition, prisons house individuals who may be prone to violence and rule-breaking.[100] It is also typical that a high proportion of inmates have mental health concerns. A 2014 US report found that this included 64% of local jail inmates, 54% of state prisoners and 45% of federal prisoners.[101] The environment may be worsened by overcrowding; poor sanitation and maintenance; violence by prisoners against other prisoners or staff; staff misconduct; prison gangs; self-harm; and the widespread smuggling of illegal drugs and other contraband.[102] In some cases, disorder has escalated into a full-scale prison riot. Academic research has found that poor conditions tend to increase the likelihood of violence within prisons.[103][104][105]
External
Prisoners can face difficulty re-integrating back into society upon their release. They often have difficulty finding work, earn less money when they do find work, and experience a wide range of medical and psychological issues. Many countries have a high recidivism rate. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 67.8% of released prisoners in the United States are rearrested within three years and 76.6% are rearrested within five years.[106] If the prisoner has a family, they are likely to suffer socially and economically from their absence.[107][108][109]
If a society has a very high imprisonment rate, these effects become noticeable not just on family units, but also on entire poor communities.[107][108] The expensive cost of maintaining a high imprisonment rate also costs money that must come at the expense of either the taxpayer or other government agencies.[110][111]
Theories of punishment and criminality
A variety of justifications and explanations are put forth for why people are imprisoned by the state. The most common of these are:[112]
Rehabilitation:[m] Theories of rehabilitation argue that the purpose of imprisonment is to change prisoners' lives in a way that will make them productive and law-abiding members of society once they are released. The idea was promoted by 19th century reformers, who promoted prisons as a humane alternative to harsh punishments of the past.[13] Many governments and prison systems have adopted rehabilitation as an official aim.[113] In the United States and Canada, prison agencies are often referred to as "Corrections" services for this reason.
Deterrence: Theories of deterrence argue that by sentencing criminals to extremely harsh penalties, other people who might be considering criminal activities will be so terrified of the consequences that they will choose not to commit crimes out of fear.
Incapacitation: Theories of incapacitation argue that while prisoners are incarcerated, they will be unable to commit crimes, thus keeping communities safer.
Retribution: Theories of retribution argue that the purpose of imprisonment is to cause a sufficient level of misery to the prisoner, in proportion to the perceived seriousness of their crime. These theories do not necessarily focus on whether or not a particular punishment benefits the community, but instead are based upon a belief that some kind of moral balance will be achieved by "paying back" the prisoner for the wrongs they have committed.[114]
Evaluation
Academic studies have been inconclusive as to whether high imprisonment rates reduce crime rates in comparison to low imprisonment rates; only a minority suggest it creates a significant reduction, and others suggest it increases crime.[107]
Prisoners are at risk of being drawn further into crime, as they may become acquainted with other criminals, trained in further criminal activity, exposed to further abuse (both from staff and other prisoners) and left with criminal records that make it difficult to find legal employment after release. All of these things can result in a higher likelihood of reoffending upon release.[115][116]
This has resulted in a series of studies that are skeptical towards the idea that prison can rehabilitate offenders.[117][118] As Morris and Rothman (1995) point out, "It's hard to train for freedom in a cage."[112] A few countries have been able to operate prison systems with a low recidivism rate, including Norway[119] and Sweden.[120] On the other hand, in many countries including the United States, the vast majority of prisoners are rearrested within 3 years of their release.[106] Prison reform organizations such as the Howard League for Penal Reform are not entirely opposed to attempting to rehabilitate offenders, but instead argue that most prisoners would be more likely to be rehabilitated if they received a punishment other than prison.[121]
The National Institute of Justice argues that offenders can be deterred by the fear of being caught but are unlikely to be deterred by the fear or experience of the punishment.[122] Like Lawrence W. Sherman, they argue that better policing is a more effective way to reduce crime rates.[122][123]
The argument that prisons can reduce crime through incapacitation is more widely accepted, even among academics who doubt that prisons can rehabilitate or deter offenders.[122][107][124] A dissenting argument from Arrigo and Milovanovic, who argue that prisoners will simply continue to victimize people inside of the prison and that this harm has impacts on the society outside.[125]
Alternatives
Main article: Alternatives to imprisonment
Modern prison reform movements generally seek to reduce prison populations. A key goal is to improve conditions by reducing overcrowding.[126] Prison reformers also argue that alternative methods are often better at rehabilitating offenders and preventing crime in the long term. Among the countries that have sought to actively reduce prison populations include Sweden,[127] Germany and the Netherlands.[128]
Alternatives to prison sentences include:
Fines
Community service
Suspended sentence: The offender performs of a period of probation, and only serves a prison sentence if the terms of probation are broken. This is similar to the Canadian concept of a conditional sentence.[129]
House arrest/curfews: Sometimes a condition of a strict suspended/conditional sentence.[129]
Mandatory treatment for drug offenders.
Rehabilitation programs, such as anger management classes.
Mental health treatment for offenders with mental illness.
Conditional discharge: The offender is not punished for the crime if they abide by certain conditions; typically they must not commit any further crimes within a designated period.
Other court orders that take away privileges from the offender, such as banning motoring offenders from driving.
Restorative justice programs,[n] which overlap with the above methods. Restorative justice is based around arranging a mediation between the offender and victim, so that the offenders can take responsibility for their actions, "to repair the harm they've done—by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service".[130][131][132]
When these alternatives are used, actual imprisonment may be used as a punishment for noncompliance.
The prison abolition movement seeks to eliminate prisons altogether. It is distinct from prison reform, although abolitionists often support reform campaigns, regarding them as incremental steps towards abolishing prisons.[133] The abolition movement is motivated by a belief that prisons are inherently ineffective.[134][135] and discriminatory.[136] The movement is associated with libertarian socialism, anarchism and anti-authoritarianism, with some prison abolitionists arguing that imprisoning people for actions the state designates as crimes is not only inexpedient but also immoral.[137]
See also
List of prisons
For-profit prisons
Immigration detention
Incarceration and health
Incarceration in the United States
Inmate telephone system
Kids for Cash Scandal
Life imprisonment
Prison gang
Prison pose
Prison sexuality, including homosexuality and sexual abuse
Prisoners' rights
Silent treatment
Notes
From the Old French prisoun[3]
In American English, prison and jail are often distinguished from one another. See below for further information.
Note that in Britain a 'detention centre' is a military detention facility, not a prison
Other commonly used terms are detention centre and remand centre.
For a more detailed look at the English "transportation" system, and the transition from penal colonies to prisons, see Hostettler, John (2009). A History of Criminal Justice in England and Wales
. Waterside Press. p. 157. ISBN 9781906534790.
For an in-depth treatment of Bentham's panopticon, see Semple, Janet (1993). Bentham's Prison : A Study of the Panopticon Penitentiary: A Study of the Panopticon Penitentiary
. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-159081-8.
But some authors have pointed out that many historical treatments overemphasize Howard's work, and that there were many other individuals (including local prison administrators) that also played a significant role in the development of modern prisons. See DeLacy, Margaret (1986). "The Eighteenth Century Gaol". Prison Reform in Lancashire, 1700–1850: A Study in Local Administration
. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719013416.
There were several reasons that early prison reformers sought to move punishment out of the view of the public, by placing prisons away from population centers and restricting access to the inside of prison facilities. For a detailed history of the ideological origins of these practices of concealment and exclusion, see: Kann, Mark E. (2005). "Concealing Punishment". Punishment, Prisons, and Patriarchy: Liberty and Power in the Early American Republic
. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4783-4.
For a broad overview of the technologies used in prison security, see: Latessa, Edward J. (1996). "Technology". In McShane, Marilyn D. & Williams, Frank P. Encyclopedia Of American Prisons
. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781135582708.
For a history of the development of prison libraries, see Coyle, William (1987). Libraries in Prisons: A Blending of Institutions
. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313247699. and Wiegand, Wayne A. & Davis, Donald G., eds. (1994). "Prison libraries". Encyclopedia of Library History
. Routledge. ISBN 9780824057879.
For a detailed discussion of the sometimes blurred line between "criminals" and "political prisoners", see: Wachsmann, Nikolaus (2004). Hitler's Prisons: Legal Terror in Nazi Germany
. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300102505.
For a detailed look at the demographics of the U.S. prison population, see Simon, Rita & de Waal, Christiaan (2009). "United States". Prisons the World Over
. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780739140246.
Also frequently referred to as "reformation" or "corrections"
Sometimes called "reparative justice" (See Weitekamp, Elmar (1993). "Reparative justice: Towards a victim oriented system"
(PDF). European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research. 1 (1): 70–93. doi:10.1007/BF02249525
.)
Примечания
List of prisons
List of countries by execution rate
List of countries by intentional homicide rate
List of U.S. states by homicide rate
United States incarceration rate
Category:Penal systems by country
Sovereignty disputed
