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Sobor Sione three-Jesus starBritish
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Look up British or british in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
British may refer to:
Places[edit]
United Kingdom, a sovereign state
Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1800)
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922)
Great Britain, an island
Peoples, culture, and language[edit]
British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom
Britishness, the British identity and common culture
British English, the English language as spoken and written in Great Britain or, more broadly, throughout the British Isles
Celtic Britons, an ancient ethno-linguistic group
Brittonic languages, a branch of the Insular Celtic language family (formerly called British)
Common Brittonic, an ancient language
Welsh language, spoken natively in Wales
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See also[edit]
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British Isles
Brit (disambiguation)
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(внесенный)Criminal law
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"Penal law" redirects here. For the historic British laws punishing nonconformists, see Penal law (British).
"Criminal case" redirects here. For game, see Criminal Case (video game).
For the 1989 film, see Criminal Law (film).
Criminal law
Elements
Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence
Scope of criminal liability
Complicity Corporate Vicarious
Severity of offense
Felony Infraction (also called violation) Misdemeanor
Inchoate offenses
Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation
Offence against the person
Assassination Assault Battery Child abuse Criminal negligence Defamation False imprisonment Harassment Home invasion Homicide Intimidation Kidnapping Manslaughter (corporate) Mayhem Murder
corporate Negligent homicide Invasion of privacy Robbery Torture
Sexual offences
Adultery Bigamy Fornication Incest Indecent exposure Masturbation Obscenity Prostitution Rape Sexual assault Sodomy
Crimes against property
Arson Blackmail Bribery Burglary Embezzlement Extortion False pretenses Fraud Gambling Intellectual property violation Larceny Payola Pickpocketing Possessing stolen property Robbery Smuggling Tax evasion Theft
Crimes against justice
Compounding Malfeasance in office Miscarriage of justice Misprision Obstruction Perjury Perverting the course of justice
Crimes against the public
Apostasy Begging Censorship violation Dueling Illegal consumption (such as prohibition of drugs, alcohol, and smoking) Suicide Terrorism
Crimes against animals
Cruelty to animals Wildlife smuggling Bestiality
Crimes against the state
Lèse-majesté Treason
Defences to liability
Automatism Consent Defence of property Diminished responsibility Duress Entrapment Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Insanity Justification Mistake (of law) Necessity Provocation Self-defence
Other common-law areas
Contracts Evidence Property Torts Wills, trusts and estates
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vte
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It proscribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and moral welfare of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal law is established by statute, which is to say that the laws are enacted by a legislature. Criminal law includes the punishment and rehabilitation of people who violate such laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, where emphasis is more on dispute resolution and victim compensation, rather than on punishment or rehabilitation. Criminal procedure is a formalized official activity that authenticates the fact of commission of a crime and authorizes punitive or rehabilitative treatment of the offender.
Contents
1 History
2 Objectives of criminal law
3 Selected criminal laws
3.1 Elements
3.2 Actus reus
3.3 Mens rea
3.4 Strict liability
3.5 Fatal offenses
3.6 Personal offenses
3.7 Property offenses
3.8 Participatory offenses
3.9 Mala in se v. mala prohibita
3.10 Defenses
4 Criminal law jurisdictions
5 See also
5.1 International criminal law
5.2 National criminal law
6 References
6.1 Citations
6.2 Sources
7 External links
History
The first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians. Around 2100–2050 BC Ur-Nammu, the Neo-Sumerian king of Ur, enacted the oldest written legal code whose text has been discovered: the Code of Ur-Nammu[1] although an earlier code of Urukagina of Lagash ( 2380–2360 BC ) is also known to have existed. Another important early code was the Code of Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law.[2] Only fragments of the early criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e.g. those of Solon and Draco.[3]
The Old Bailey in London (in 1808) was the venue for more than 100,000 criminal trials between 1674 and 1834, including all death penalty cases.
In Roman law, Gaius's Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, treating theft (furtum) as a tort. Assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of monetary compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest.[4] After the revival of Roman law in the 12th century, sixth-century Roman classifications and jurisprudence provided the foundations of the distinction between criminal and civil law in European law from then until the present time.[5]
The first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England.[6] The special notion of criminal penalty, at least concerning Europe, arose in Spanish Late Scholasticism (see Alfonso de Castro), when the theological notion of God's penalty (poena aeterna) that was inflicted solely for a guilty mind, became transfused into canon law first and, finally, to secular criminal law.[7] The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the eighteenth century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, which allowed for its development as a discernible entity.
Objectives of criminal law
Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious, potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules.[8] Every crime is composed of criminal elements. Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life. Government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime.
Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by punishments: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restoration. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each.
Retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be executed himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance."
Deterrence – Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from committing those offenses.
Incapacitation – Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today. The death penalty or banishment have served the same purpose.
Rehabilitation – Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong.
Restoration – This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state authority, any injury inflicted upon the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restoration is commonly combined with other main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law, i.e., returning the victim to his or her original position before the injury.
Selected criminal laws
Many laws are enforced by threat of criminal punishment, and the range of the punishment varies with the jurisdiction. The scope of criminal law is too vast to catalog intelligently. Nevertheless, the following are some of the more typical aspects of criminal law.
Elements
Main article: Element (criminal law)
The criminal law generally prohibits undesirable acts. Thus, proof of a crime requires proof of some act. Scholars label this the requirement of an actus reus or guilty act. Some crimes – particularly modern regulatory offenses – require no more, and they are known as strict liability offenses (E.g. Under the Road traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit). Nevertheless, because of the potentially severe consequences of criminal conviction, judges at common law also sought proof of an intent to do some bad thing, the mens rea or guilty mind. As to crimes of which both actus reus and mens rea are requirements, judges have concluded that the elements must be present at precisely the same moment and it is not enough that they occurred sequentially at different times.[9]
Actus reus
Main article: Actus reus
An English court room in 1886, with Lord Chief Justice Coleridge presiding
Actus reus is Latin for "guilty act" and is the physical element of committing a crime. It may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action, or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of A striking B might suffice, or a parent's failure to give food to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.
Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract,[10] a voluntary undertaking,[11] a blood relation with whom one lives,[12] and occasionally through one's official position.[13] Duty also can arise from one's own creation of a dangerous situation.[14] On the other hand, it was held in the U.K. that switching off the life support of someone in a persistent vegetative state is an omission to act and not criminal. Since discontinuation of power is not a voluntary act, not grossly negligent, and is in the patient's best interests, no crime takes place.[15] In this case it was held that since a PVS patient could not give or withhold consent to medical treatment, it was for the doctors to decide whether treatment was in the patient's best interest. It was reasonable for them to conclude that treatment was not in the patient's best interest, and should therefore be stopped, when there was no prospect of improvement. It was never lawful to take active steps to cause or accelerate death, although in certain circumstances it was lawful to withhold life sustaining treatment, including feeding, without which the patient would die.
An actus reus may be nullified by an absence of causation. For example, a crime involves harm to a person, the person's action must be the but for cause and proximate cause of the harm.[16] If more than one cause exists (e.g. harm comes at the hands of more than one culprit) the act must have "more than a slight or trifling link" to the harm.[17]
Causation is not broken simply because a victim is particularly vulnerable. This is known as the thin skull rule.[18] However, it may be broken by an intervening act (novus actus interveniens) of a third party, the victim's own conduct,[19] or another unpredictable event. A mistake in medical treatment typically will not sever the chain, unless the mistakes are in themselves "so potent in causing death."[20]
Mens rea
Main article: Mens rea
Mens rea is another Latin phrase, meaning "guilty mind". This is the mental element of the crime. A guilty mind means an intention to commit some wrongful act. Intention under criminal law is separate from a person's motive[21] (although motive does not exist in Scots law).[22]
A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. It is the mental state of mind of the person at the time the actus reus was committed. For instance, if C tears a gas meter from a wall to get the money inside, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbour's house, he could be liable for poisoning.[23] Courts often consider whether the actor did recognize the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a risk.[24] Of course, a requirement only that one ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea has been reduced in some areas of the criminal law but is obviously still an important part in the criminal system.
Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense and possibly reduce the punishment but this is not always the case. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing effected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.[25] On the other hand, it matters not who is actually harmed through a defendant's actions. The doctrine of transferred malice means, for instance, that if a man intends to strike a person with his belt, but the belt bounces off and hits another, mens rea is transferred from the intended target to the person who actually was struck.[Note: The notion of transferred intent does not exist within Scots' Law. In Scotland, one would not be charged with assault due to transferred intent, but instead assault due to recklessness.] [26]
Strict liability
Main article: Strict liability (criminal)
Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced or demoted. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly. In offenses of absolute liability, other than the prohibited act, it may not be necessary to show the act was intentional. Generally, crimes must include an intentional act, and "intent" is an element that must be proved in order to find a crime occurred. The idea of a "strict liability crime" is an oxymoron. The few exceptions are not truly crimes at all – but are administrative regulations and civil penalties created by statute, such as crimes against the traffic or highway code.
Fatal offenses
Main articles: Murder and Culpable homicide
A murder, defined broadly, is an unlawful killing. Unlawful killing is probably the act most frequently targeted by the criminal law. In many jurisdictions, the crime of murder is divided into various gradations of severity, e.g., murder in the first degree, based on intent. Malice is a required element of murder. Manslaughter (Culpable Homicide in Scotland) is a lesser variety of killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, recklessness.
Settled insanity is a possible defense.
Personal offenses
Main articles: Assault, Battery (crime), Rape, and Sexual abuse
Many criminal codes protect the physical integrity of the body. The crime of battery is traditionally understood as an unlawful touching, although this does not include everyday knocks and jolts to which people silently consent as the result of presence in a crowd. Creating a fear of imminent battery is an assault, and also may give rise to criminal liability. Non-consensual intercourse, or rape, is a particularly egregious form of battery.
Property offenses
Main articles: Criminal damage, Criminal trespass, Theft, Robbery, Extortion, Dacoity, Burglary, and Fraud
Property often is protected by the criminal law. Trespassing is unlawful entry onto the real property of another. Many criminal codes provide penalties for conversion, embezzlement, theft, all of which involve deprivations of the value of the property. Robbery is a theft by force. Fraud in the UK is a breach of the Fraud Act 2006 by false representation, by failure to disclose information or by abuse of position.
Participatory offenses
Main articles: Accomplice, Aid and abet, and Inchoate offenses
Some criminal codes criminalize association with a criminal venture or involvement in criminality that does not actually come to fruition. Some examples are aiding, abetting, conspiracy, and attempt. However, in Scotland, the English concept of Aiding and Abetting is known as Art and Part Liability. See Glanville Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law, (London: Stevens & Sons, 1983); Glanville Williams, Criminal Law the General Part (London: Stevens & Sons, 1961).
Mala in se v. mala prohibita
While crimes are typically broken into degrees or classes to punish appropriately, all offenses can be divided into 'mala in se' and 'mala prohibita' laws. Both are Latin legal terms, mala in se meaning crimes that are thought to be inherently evil or morally wrong, and thus will be widely regarded as crimes regardless of jurisdiction. Mala in se offenses are felonies, property crimes, immoral acts and corrupt acts by public officials. Mala prohibita, on the other hand, refers to offenses that do not have wrongfulness associated with them. Parking in a restricted area, driving the wrong way down a one-way street, jaywalking or unlicensed fishing are examples of acts that are prohibited by statute, but without which are not considered wrong. Mala prohibita statutes are usually imposed strictly, as there does not need to be mens rea component for punishment under those offenses, just the act itself. For this reason, it can be argued that offenses that are mala prohibita are not really crimes at all.[27]
Defenses
Main article: Criminal defenses
Criminal law jurisdictions
International Criminal Court in The Hague
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Crimes against humanity and United States and the International Criminal Court
Public international law deals extensively and increasingly with criminal conduct that is heinous and ghastly enough to affect entire societies and regions. The formative source of modern international criminal law was the Nuremberg trials following the Second World War in which the leaders of Nazism were prosecuted for their part in genocide and atrocities across Europe. The Nuremberg trials marked the beginning of criminal fault for individuals, where individuals acting on behalf of a government can be tried for violations of international law without the benefit of sovereign immunity. In 1998 an International criminal court was established in the Rome Statute.[28]
See also
Administrative law
Civil law
International law
Legal socialization
Public criminology
Martial law
European Union law
International criminal law
Crimes against humanity
International criminal law
United States and the International Criminal Court
Universal jurisdiction
National criminal law
Australian criminal law
Canadian criminal law
Criminal Code of Russia
Penal Code of Romania
Criminal law of Singapore
Criminal law of the United States
English criminal law
Penal Code of France
Hong Kong criminal law
Indian criminal law
Irish criminal law
Northern Irish criminal law
Philippine criminal law
Scottish criminal law
Strafgesetzbuch (Switzerland)
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For the ships, see MV Arctic, SS Arctic, USS Arctic. For other uses, see Arctic (disambiguation).
See also: Arctic exploration, Arctic ice pack, and North Pole
The nations with land within the Arctic region.
Location of the Arctic
Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region
MODIS image of the Arctic
The Arctic (/ˈɑːrktɪk/ or /ˈɑːrtɪk/)[1][Note 1] is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska (United States), Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Northern Canada, Norway, Russia and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost (permanently frozen underground ice)-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.
The Arctic region строительство сущ ср
construction, building
(сооружение) PRISON ZONE INNOVATIONE PROGRAMME PROGECT MENEDGMENT SELF MENEDGMENT CANDIDAT PRESIDENT DEVELOPMENT IDEOLOGY PRISON ZONE ARCTIC пользователь сущ м
user, customers
(потребитель, клиенты)
buildпол сущ м
floor, flooring
(настил)
Paul, Pol
gender
(гендер)женский прил
female, woman
feminine, womanish
(женственный)
ladies
(дамский)возраст сущ м
age
year
(год)равномерно нареч
evenly, uniformly, equally
(ровно, однородно, одинаково)
smoothly
(плавно)
in regular intervals
(построение)
engineering
(машиностроение) is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies.[3] Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.
Contents
1 Definition and etymology
2 Climate
3 Flora and fauna
3.1 Plants
3.2 Animals
4 Natural resources
5 Paleontology
6 Indigenous population
7 International cooperation and politics
7.1 Territorial claims
7.2 Exploration
7.3 Pollution
7.4 Preservation
8 Global warming
9 Arctic waters
10 Arctic lands
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 Further reading
16 External links
Definition and etymology[edit]
The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός (arktikos), "near the Bear, northern"[4] and that from the word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear.[5] The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains Polaris, the Pole star, also known as the North Star.[6]
There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66° 33'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic is the region where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.[7][8]
Climate[edit]
Main articles: Climate of the Arctic and Global warming in the Arctic
The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.
Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking.[9] Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.[10]
Flora and fauna[edit]
Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and to cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.
Plants[edit]
Arctic poppy in bloom within the Qausuittuq National Park on Bathurst Island
Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the Bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).
Animals[edit]
Muskox
A snowy owl
Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales, and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists and has been described around the Arctic Circle in the form of the Larus gulls.
Natural resources[edit]
See also: Natural resources of the Arctic and Petroleum exploration in the Arctic
The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.
The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.[citation needed]
Paleontology[edit]
Marine fossils in Canadian Arctic
During the Cretaceous time period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.
However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.[11]
Indigenous population[edit]
Circumpolar coastal human population distribution c. 2009 (includes indigenous and non-indigenous).
Main article: Circumpolar peoples
Further information: Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Inuit Circumpolar Council
The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture.[12][13] The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec/Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD.[14] Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.[15]
The Dorset/Thule culture transition dates around the 9th–10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.[16] Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States.[17]
Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik. The Yupik still refer to themselves as Eskimo, which means "snowshoe netters", not "raw meat eaters" as it is sometimes mistakenly translated.[18]
International cooperation and politics[edit]
Main article: Arctic cooperation and politics
Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. USS Honolulu pictured.
The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection.[19] Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.[20]
Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.
Territorial claims[edit]
Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic
No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.[19][21] Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996),[22] Russia (ratified in 1997),[22] Canada (ratified in 2003)[22] and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004)[22] launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.
On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.[23]
Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration,[24][25] blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."[19][26]
As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the Russian EEZ.[27]
The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.[28]
Exploration[edit]
Main article: Arctic exploration
See also: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic
Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.[29]
Pollution[edit]
Main articles: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean and Arctic haze
Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic
The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.
Preservation[edit]
Main article: Save the Arctic
There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio Earth Summit, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.[30]
Global warming[edit]
Main article: Global warming in the Arctic
The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.[31][32]
Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to 1979–2000 average
The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average,[33] resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.[34]
The current Arctic warming is leading to fears of ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.[35] Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming,[36] as they are potent greenhouse gases.
Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,[37] and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.[38]
Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.[39] One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.[40] In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.[41] These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.[42][43][44][45]
Eidsfjord in Vesterålen, Norway is 250 km (160 mi) inside the Arctic Circle, but the comparatively temperate Norwegian sea gives a mean annual temperature of 4 °C (39 °F) and a three-month summer above 10°C.[46]
Arctic waters[edit]
Arctic Ocean
Baffin Bay
Beaufort Sea
Barents Sea
Bering Sea
Bering Strait
Chukchi Sea
Davis Strait
Denmark Strait
East Siberian Sea
Greenland Sea
Hudson Bay
Kara Sea
Laptev Sea
Nares Strait
Norwegian Sea
Arctic lands[edit]
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Geographic Designation National Affiliation Designation
Alaska United States State
Aleutian Islands United States American Archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia Federal subject
Canadian Arctic Archipelago Canada Canadian Archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
Diomede Island (Big) Russia Island
Diomede Island (Little) United States Island
Finnmark Norway County
Franz Josef Land Russia Federal subject archipelago
Greenland Kingdom of Denmark Autonomous country
Grímsey Iceland Island
Jan Mayen Norway Island
Krasnoyarsk Krai Russia Federal subject
Lapland Finland Region
Lapland Sweden Province
Murmansk Oblast Russia Federal subject
Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
New Siberian Islands Russia Archipelago
Nordland Norway County
Norrbotten Sweden Province
Northwest Territories Canada Territory
Novaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik Canada Northern part of Quebec
Nunavut Canada Territory
Russian Arctic islands Russia Islands
Sápmi Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic Russia Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago
Siberia Russia Region
Svalbard Norway Governor of Svalbard archipelago
Troms Norway County
Yukon Canada Territory
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Russia Federal subject
Wrangel Island Russia Zapovednik (nature reserve)
See also[edit]
Arctic portal
icon Geography portal
List of countries by northernmost point
Poverty in the Arctic
Ring species
Antarctic
Arctic Cooperation and Politics
NotesList of national capitals
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Lists of capitals
Of countries
in alphabetical order
by latitude
by population
Former
Purpose-built
Capitals, largest and second-largest cities by country
Countries with multiple capitals
Timeline of country and capital changes
Of country subdivisions
Capitals outside the territories they serve
Purpose-built
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This is a list of national capitals, including capitals of territories and dependencies, non-sovereign states including associated states and entities whose sovereignty is disputed. Sovereign states and observer states within the United Nations are shown in bolded text.
City Country Notes
Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
Abuja Nigeria Lagos was the capital from 1914 to 1991.
Accra Ghana
Adamstown Pitcairn Islands British Overseas Territory
Addis Ababa Ethiopia
Algiers Algeria
Alofi Niue Self-governing in free association with New Zealand
Amman Jordan
Amsterdam (official)
The Hague (de facto) Netherlands The Dutch constitution refers to Amsterdam as the "capital". The Dutch government is located in The Hague, which also hosts the monarch, government ministries, judiciary and diplomatic missions. See Capital of the Netherlands.
Andorra la Vella Andorra
Ankara Turkey
Antananarivo Madagascar
Apia Samoa
Ashgabat Turkmenistan
Asmara Eritrea
Asunción Paraguay
Athens Greece
Avarua Cook Islands Self-governing in free association with New Zealand.
Baghdad Iraq
Baku Azerbaijan
Bamako Mali
Bandar Seri Begawan Brunei
Bangkok Thailand
Bangui Central African Republic
Banjul Gambia
Basseterre Saint Kitts and Nevis
Beijing China See also: List of historical capitals of China
Beirut Lebanon
Belgrade Serbia
Belmopan Belize
Berlin Germany
Bern Switzerland De facto capital
Bishkek Kyrgyzstan
Bissau Guinea-Bissau
Bogotá Colombia
Brasília Brazil
Bratislava Slovakia
Brazzaville Republic of the Congo
Bridgetown Barbados
Brussels Belgium Also the de facto capital of the European Union
Bucharest Romania
Budapest Hungary
Buenos Aires Argentina
Cairo Egypt
Canberra Australia
Caracas Venezuela
Castries Saint Lucia
Charlotte Amalie United States Virgin Islands Territory of the U.S.
Chișinău Moldova
Cockburn Town Turks and Caicos Islands British Overseas Territory
Conakry Guinea
Copenhagen Denmark
Dakar Senegal
Damascus Syria
Dhaka Bangladesh
Dili East Timor
Djibouti Djibouti
Dodoma (official, legislative)
Dar es Salaam (de facto, judicial) Tanzania Dar es Salaam, the former capital and largest city continues to serve as the de facto seat of government hosting the presidency, government ministries, judiciary and diplomatic missions.
Doha Qatar
Douglas Isle of Man British Crown Dependency
Dublin Ireland
Dushanbe Tajikistan
Edinburgh of the Seven Seas Tristan da Cunha Part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
El Aioun (declared)
Tifariti (de facto) Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic [c] The Sahrawi Republic, recognised by 82 states, claims the mostly Moroccan controlled Western Sahara. Moroccan controlled territory includes El Aaiún, and Morocco claims all Sahrawi controlled territory. Tifariti is now the temporary capital (instead of Bir Lehlou earlier) of the SADR. Some government and military structures reside in exile in Tindouf, Algeria.[1] See Politics of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
Episkopi Cantonment Akrotiri and Dhekelia British Overseas Territory
Flying Fish Cove Christmas Island External territory of Australia
Freetown Sierra Leone
Funafuti Tuvalu
Gaborone Botswana
George Town Cayman Islands British Overseas Territory
Georgetown Ascension Island Part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Georgetown Guyana
Gibraltar Gibraltar British Overseas Territory
Gitega Burundi Bujumbura was the capital from 1962 to 2018
Guatemala City Guatemala
Gustavia Saint Barthélemy Overseas collectivity of France
Hagåtña Guam Territory of the United States
Hamilton Bermuda British Overseas Territory
Hanga Roa Easter Island Special territory of Chile
Hanoi Vietnam
Harare Zimbabwe
Hargeisa Somaliland Unrecognized and self-declared state, de jure part of Somalia.
Havana Cuba
Helsinki Finland
Honiara Solomon Islands
Islamabad Pakistan Karachi was selected as the first capital of Pakistan and served as such until the capital was shifted to Rawalpindi in 1958. Rawalpindi served as an interim capital for almost a decade until the construction in Islamabad was complete.
Jakarta Indonesia
Jamestown Saint Helena Part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Jarabulus Syrian opposition See Syrian Civil War.
Jerusalem (disputed) Israel (de facto)
Palestine (claimed) The Jerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the Israeli government and its institutions. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem. Most countries currently maintain their embassies in and around Tel Aviv. The United States recognized Jerusalem as the capital and moved its embassy there in May 2018. [2] Many countries officially adhere to the proposal that Jerusalem have international status, as called for in the 1947 Partition Plan.[3] The State of Palestine, a de jure state, claims East Jerusalem as its capital. See Status of Jerusalem and Positions on Jerusalem.
Juba South Sudan
Kabul Afghanistan
Kampala Uganda
Kathmandu Nepal
Khartoum Sudan
Kyiv Ukraine
Kigali Rwanda
King Edward Point South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands British Overseas Territory
Kingston Jamaica
Kingston Norfolk Island External territory of Australia
Kingstown Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Kinshasa Democratic Republic of the Congo
Kuala Lumpur (official, legislative and royal)
Putrajaya (administrative and judicial) Malaysia
Kuwait City Kuwait
Libreville Gabon
Lilongwe Malawi
Lima Peru Cusco is declared as the "Historical Capital" (Spanish: Capital Historica), a merely symbolic statement, by Article 49 of the Peruvian Constitution.
Lisbon Portugal
Ljubljana Slovenia
Lomé Togo
London United Kingdom Prior to the Acts of Union in 1707, London was the capital of England only; Edinburgh was the capital of the Kingdom of Scotland
Luanda Angola
Lusaka Zambia
Luxembourg Luxembourg
Madrid Spain
Majuro Marshall Islands Self-governing in free association with United States.
Malabo Equatorial Guinea
Malé Maldives
Managua Nicaragua
Manama Bahrain
Manila Philippines
Maputo Mozambique
Marigot Saint Martin Overseas collectivity of France
Maseru Lesotho
Mata-Utu Wallis and Futuna Overseas collectivity of France
Mbabane (administrative)
Lobamba (royal and legislative) Eswatini (Swaziland)
Mexico City Mexico
Minsk Belarus
Mogadishu Somalia
Monaco Monaco City-state
Monrovia Liberia
Montevideo Uruguay
Moroni Comoros
Moscow Russia
Muscat Oman
Nairobi Kenya
Nassau Bahamas
Naypyidaw Myanmar
N'Djamena Chad
New Delhi India Kolkata was the capital of India until 1911 during the British Raj
Ngerulmud Palau Self-governing in free association with United States.
Niamey Niger
Nicosia Cyprus
Nicosia Northern Cyprus De facto independent state that is recognised only by Turkey. Northern Cyprus is claimed in whole by the Republic of Cyprus.[4]
Nouakchott Mauritania
Nouméa New Caledonia Sui generis collectivity of France
Nukuʻalofa Tonga
Nur-Sultan Kazakhstan Formerly known as Astana; the name was changed on 20 March 2019.
Nuuk Greenland Self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark
Oranjestad Aruba Self-governing country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Oslo Norway
Ottawa Canada
Ouagadougou Burkina Faso
Pago Pago American Samoa Territory of the United States
Palikir Federated States of Micronesia Self-governing in free association with United States.
Panama City Panama
Papeete French Polynesia Overseas collectivity of France
Paramaribo Suriname
Paris France
Philipsburg Sint Maarten Self-governing country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Phnom Penh Cambodia
Plymouth (official)
Brades Estate (de facto) Montserrat British Overseas Territory. Plymouth was abandoned after the eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano in 1997. Government offices since then have been moved to Brades Estate, which is in the northwestern part of Montserrat.
Podgorica (official)
Cetinje (Old Royal Capital, present seat of the President) Montenegro
Port Louis Mauritius
Port Moresby Papua New Guinea
Port Vila Vanuatu
Port-au-Prince Haiti
Port of Spain Trinidad and Tobago
Porto-Novo (official)
Cotonou (de facto) Benin
Prague Czech Republic
Praia Cape Verde
Pretoria (executive)
Bloemfontein (judicial)
Cape Town (legislative) South Africa
Pristina Kosovo[g] De facto independent state that is recognised by 112 UN member states and by Taiwan. Claimed in whole by the Republic of Serbia as part of its Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. Republic of Kosovo has de facto control over most of the territory, with limited control in North Kosovo.
Pyongyang North Korea
Quito Ecuador Highest official capital (2,850 m).[5]
Rabat Morocco
Ramallah Palestine De facto capital
Reykjavík Iceland
Riga Latvia
Riyadh Saudi Arabia
Road Town British Virgin Islands British Overseas Territory
Rome Italy
Roseau Dominica
Saipan Northern Mariana Islands Territory of the United States
San José Costa Rica
San Juan Puerto Rico Territory of the United States
San Marino San Marino
San Salvador El Salvador
Sana'a (de jure)
Aden (de facto, temporary) Yemen Sana'a has been occupied by Houthis rebels since February 2015. See also: Yemeni Civil War (2015–present).
Santiago (official)
Valparaíso (legislative) Chile The National Congress of Chile is located in Valparaíso
Santo Domingo Dominican Republic
São Tomé São Tomé and Príncipe
Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina
Seoul South Korea
Singapore Singapore City-state
Skopje North Macedonia
Sofia Bulgaria
Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (official)
Colombo (executive, judicial) Sri Lanka Also known as "Kotte". Until the 1980s, the capital was Colombo, where many important governmental institutions still remain and which is still designated as the commercial capital of Sri Lanka.
St. George's Grenada
St. Helier Jersey British Crown Dependency
St. John's Antigua and Barbuda
St. Peter Port Guernsey British Crown Dependency
St. Pierre Saint Pierre and Miquelon Overseas collectivity of France
Stanley Falkland Islands British Overseas Territory
Stepanakert Artsakh The self-declared country remains diplomatically unrecognised by UN-member states, including Armenia. Transnistria, South Ossetia, and Abkhazia, all UN non-member states, recognise the state. Claimed in whole by Azerbaijan.
Stockholm Sweden
Sucre (constitutional)
La Paz (administrative) Bolivia La Paz is the highest administrative capital (3,650 m), higher than Quito.[5]
Sukhumi Abkhazia De facto independent state recognised by Russia, Nauru, Nicaragua, Venezuela, South Ossetia and Transnistria. Claimed in whole by Republic of Georgia as the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia.
Suva Fiji
Taipei Taiwan Officially the Republic of China (ROC), it has been competing for recognition with the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the sole Chinese government since 1949. Taiwan controls the island of Taiwan and its associated islands, Quemoy, Matsu, the Pratas, and part of the Spratly Islands[Note 1] The territory of Taiwan is claimed in whole by the People's Republic of China.[Note 2] The Republic of China participates in the World Health Organization and a number of non-UN international organizations such as the World Trade Organization, International Olympic Committee and others under a variety of pseudonyms, most commonly Chinese Taipei.
Tallinn Estonia
Tarawa Kiribati
Tashkent Uzbekistan
Tbilisi (official)
Kutaisi (legislative) Georgia
Tegucigalpa Honduras
Tehran Iran
Thimphu Bhutan
Tirana Albania
Tiraspol Transnistria De facto independent state, not recognized by any UN-member, but by Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Claimed in whole by the Republic of Moldova as the Territorial Unit of Transnistria.
Tokyo Japan
Tórshavn Faroe Islands Self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark
Tripoli Libya
Tskhinvali South Ossetia De facto independent state recognised by Russia, Nicaragua, Nauru, Venezuela, Abkhazia and Transnistria. Claimed in whole by the Republic of Georgia as the Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia.
Tunis Tunisia
Ulaanbaatar Mongolia
Vaduz Liechtenstein
Valletta Malta
The Valley Anguilla British Overseas Territory
Vatican City Vatican City City-state
Victoria Seychelles
Vienna Austria
Vientiane Laos
Vilnius Lithuania
Warsaw Poland
Washington United States
Wellington New Zealand See also: Capital of New Zealand
West Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands External territory of Australia
Willemstad Curaçao Self-governing country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Windhoek Namibia
Yamoussoukro (official)
Abidjan (former capital; still has many government offices) Ivory Coast
Yaoundé Cameroon
Yaren (de facto) Nauru Country does not have an official capital; however, the government offices are in Yaren.
Yerevan Armenia
Zagreb Croatia
